Flag Coat of arms
Anthem: Боже Правде / Bože Pravde
Location of Serbia (green) – Kosovo (light green) on the European continent (dark grey)
Location of Serbia (green) – Kosovo (light green)
on the European continent (dark grey)
Capital
(and largest city) Belgrade
44°48′N 20°28′E / 44.8°N 20.467°E / 44.8; 20.467
Official language(s) Serbian1
Demonym Serb, Serbian
Government Parliamentary republic
– President Boris Tadić
– Prime Minister Mirko Cvetković
Establishment
– Statehood 850
– Raška Kingdom 1217
– Serbian Empire 16 April 1346
– Independence lost to Ottoman Empire 20 June 14592
– Serbian revolution 15 February 1804
– Independence recognized 13 July 1878
– Unification with Vojvodina 25 November 19183
– Independent Republic 5 June 2006
Area
– Total 88 361 km2 (113th)
34 116 sq mi
– Water (%) 0.13
Population
– 2009 estimate 7,334,935[1] (excl. Kosovo)
– Density 107,46/km2 (94th)
297/sq mi
GDP (PPP) 2010 estimate
– Total $80.602 billion[2]
– Per capita $10,897[2] (excluding Kosovo)
GDP (nominal) 2010 estimate
– Total 43.662 billion[2]
– Per capita $5,898[2] (excluding Kosovo)
Gini (2007) .24 (low)
HDI (2006) 0.821 (high) (65th)
Currency Serbian dinar (RSD)
Time zone CET (UTC+1)
– Summer (DST) CEST (UTC+2)
Drives on the right
Internet TLD .rs
Calling code 381
1 Albanian, Bosnian, Bulgarian, Bunjevac, Croatian, Hungarian, Romanian, Romany, Rusyn, Slovak, Ukrainian and Vlach[3] are recognized by the ECRML

2 Titular rulers of Serbia in Hungarian exile claimed Serbian throne until 1540.[4][5] Belgrade fell to Ottomans only in 1521. Serbia was briefly reestablished by Jovan Nenad 1526–7.
3 Preceded by the unification with Raška, Kosovo and Syrmia

Serbia (pronounced: en-us-Serbia.ogg /ˈsɜrbiə/ (help·info)), officially the Republic of Serbia (Serbian: Република Србија, Republika Srbija), is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central- and Southeastern Europe, covering the southern lowlands of the Carpathian basin and the central part of the Balkans. Serbia borders Hungary to the north; Romania and Bulgaria to the east; the Republic of Macedonia to the south; and Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Montenegro to the west; its border with Albania is disputed. Serbia’s capital city, Belgrade, is among the most populous in Southeastern Europe.

After their settlement in the Balkans, Serbs formed a medieval kingdom that evolved into a Serbian Empire, which reached its peak in the 14th century. By the 16th century Serbian lands were conquered and occupied by the Ottomans, at times interrupted by the Habsburgs. In the early 1800s, the Serbian revolution established the country as the region’s first constitutional monarchy, which subsequently expanded its territory and pioneered the abolition of feudalism and serfdom in Southeastern Europe.[6][7] The former Habsburg crownland of Vojvodina joined Serbia in 1918. Decimated as a result of World War I, the country united with other South Slavic peoples into a Yugoslav state which would exist in several formations up until 2006, when Serbia once again became independent.

In February 2008, the parliament of Kosovo, Serbia’s southern province with an ethnic Albanian majority, declared independence. The response from the international community has been mixed. Serbia regards Kosovo as an autonomous province of Serbia, governed by UNMIK, a UN mission.

Serbia is a member of the United Nations, Council of Europe, BSEC, and will preside over the CEFTA in 2010. Serbia is classified as an emerging and developing economy by the International Monetary Fund and an upper-middle income economy by the World Bank.[8] WTO accession is expected in 2010.[9] Serbia has a high Human Development Index[10] and Freedom House in 2008 listed Serbia as one of few free Balkan states.[11] The country is also an EU membership applicant and a militarily neutral country.[12][13]
Contents
[hide]

* 1 History
o 1.1 Prehistory and early history
o 1.2 Medieval principalities, kingdoms and Serbian Empire (630–1459)
o 1.3 Ottoman and Austrian rule (1459–1791)
o 1.4 Serbian Revolution and Monarchy (1804–1918)
o 1.5 Balkan wars and World War I (1912-1918)
o 1.6 Kingdom of Yugoslavia (1918–1945)
o 1.7 World War II and civil war in Serbia
o 1.8 Serbia within Socialist Yugoslavia (1945–1991)
o 1.9 Dissolution of Socialist Yugoslavia and Kosovo War (1991–1999)
o 1.10 Political transition (since 2000)
o 1.11 Independent Serbia (2006–)
* 2 Geography
o 2.1 National parks
o 2.2 Wetlands
o 2.3 Climate
o 2.4 Environment
o 2.5 Water
* 3 Government
o 3.1 Foreign relations
o 3.2 Administrative Division
* 4 Defense
* 5 Demographics
o 5.1 Largest Cities
o 5.2 Religion
* 6 Economy
o 6.1 Communication
o 6.2 Transportation
+ 6.2.1 Water transportation
o 6.3 Tourism
o 6.4 Energy
* 7 Culture
o 7.1 Heritage
o 7.2 Theatre and cinema
o 7.3 Education
o 7.4 Holidays
o 7.5 Cuisine
o 7.6 Architecture
* 8 Sports
o 8.1 Basketball
o 8.2 Association Football
o 8.3 Tennis
o 8.4 Waterpolo
* 9 International rankings
* 10 See also
* 11 References
* 12 External links

History
Main article: History of Serbia
Prehistory and early history
Main articles: Prehistoric Serbia and Roman Serbia

The Vinča and Starčevo cultures were early neolithic civilizations in Serbia between the 7th and the 3rd millennium BC. Many archeological sites show a long history of culture in Serbia, such as the Lepenski Vir.

The Paleo-Balkan peoples, such as the Thracians, Dacians, Illyrians were autochthonous inhabitants of Serbia prior to the Roman conquest in the 1st century BC. Greeks expanded into the south of modern Serbia in the 4th century B.C., the northernmost point of the empire of Alexander the Great being the town of Kale-Krševica. The Celtic tribe of Scordisci settled in the 3rd century BC and built many fortifications such as the Kalemegdan fortress, and founded many modern cities in Serbia, such as Singidunum, the city that evolved into Belgrade, the capital of Serbia.

Contemporary Serbia extends fully or partially over several classical Roman provinces such as Moesia, Pannonia, Praevalitana, Dalmatia, Dacia and Macedonia. The northern Serbian city of Sirmium was one of the capitals of the Roman Empire during the Tetrarchy.[14] No less than 17 Roman Emperors were born in what is now Serbia, the most after present-day Italy.[15] The most famous Roman Emperor born in Serbia is Constantine I who empowered Christianity throughout the Roman Empire.
Medieval principalities, kingdoms and Serbian Empire (630–1459)
Main articles: History of Medieval Serbia, Serbian Empire, and Moravian Serbia
Apostle Peter and Paul’s church, the oldest preserved sacral monument in Serbia, UNESCO item and the coronation site of many Serbian monarchs.[16]
Serbian Empire and its neighbours, 1355
Coronation of Emperor Dušan on April 16, 1346
Smederevo, Serbian capital 1430-1459

The beginning of the Serbian state starts with the settling of the White Serbs in the Balkans led by the Unknown Archont, who was asked to defend the Byzantine frontiers from invading Avars. Emperor Heraclius granted the Serbs a permanent dominion in the Sclavinias of Western Balkans upon completing this task. By the 750′s a great-grandson of the Unknown Archont- Prince Višeslav[17][18] managed to unite several territories, which led to the founding of Raška, which lay between the crisis-struck Byzantine and the growing Frankish Empire[19][20].

At first heavily dependent on the Byzantine Empire as its vassal, Raška gained independence by the expulsion of the Byzantine troops and the major defeat of the Bulgarian army around 850 AD during the rule of Vlastimir of Serbia, the founder of the first Serbian dynasty, the House of Vlastimirović. The Christianization of the Serbs was complete in 867–869 when Byzantine Emperor Basil I sent priests after Knez Mutimir had acknowledged Byzantine suzerainty.[21] At about the same time, the western Serbs were subjugated to the Frankish Empire.[22] The First dynasty died out in 960 A.D; the wars of succession for the Serb throne led to Serbian incorporation into the Byzantine Empire in 971. Around 1040 AD, an uprising in the medieval state of Duklja overthrew Byzantine rule. Duklja then assumed domination over the Serbian lands during the 11th and 12th centuries. In 1077 A.D., Duklja became the first Serb Kingdom [23] following the establishment of the Catholic Bishopric of Bar. From the late 12th century onwards, Raška rose to become the paramount Serb state. Over the 13th and 14th centuries, it ruled over the other Serb lands. During this time, Serbia began to expand eastward and southward into Kosovo and northern Macedonia and northward for the first time.

The Serbian Empire was proclaimed in 1346 by Stefan Dušan, during which time the country reached its territorial, spiritual and cultural peak, becoming one of the most powerful states in Europe[24]. Dušan’s Code, a universal system of laws, was enacted. Dušan was succeeded by his son Uroš Nejaki, The Weak). Rather young and too incompetent to maintain a strong grip on the empire created by his father, he watched the Serbian Empire fragment into a conglomeration of principalities. Uroš died childless in December 1371, after much of the Serbian nobility had been destroyed by the Turks in the Battle of Maritsa earlier that year.

The Houses of Mrnjavčević, Lazarević and Branković ruled the Serbian lands in the 15th and 16th centuries. Constant struggles took place between various Serbian kingdoms and the Ottoman Empire. After the fall of Constantinople to the Turks in 1453 and the Siege of Belgrade, the Serbian Despotate fell in 1459 following the siege of the provisional capital of Smederevo. After repelling Ottoman attacks for over 70 years, Belgrade finally fell in 1521. Forceful conversion to Islam became imminent, especially in the southwest Raška, Kosovo and Bosnia. To the south, the Republic of Venice grew stronger in importance, gradually taking over the coastal areas.
Ottoman and Austrian rule (1459–1791)
Kapela mira (Peace Chapel), where the Treaty of Karlowitz was negotiated
See also: Great Serb Migrations, Ottoman Serbia, and Habsburg Serbia

After the loss of independence to the Kingdom of Hungary and the Ottoman Empire, Serbia briefly regained sovereignty under Emperor Jovan Nenad in the 16th century. Three Austrian invasions and numerous rebellions, such as the Banat Uprising, constantly challenged Ottoman rule. Vojvodina endured a century long Ottoman occupation before being ceded to the Habsburg Empire in the 17th–18th centuries under the Treaty of Karlowitz. As the Great Serb Migrations depopulated most of Kosovo and Serbia proper, the Serbs sought refuge in the more prosperous Vojvodina in the north and Military Frontier in the West where they were granted imperial rights by the Austrian crown under measures such as the Statuta Wallachorum of 1630. The Ottoman persecutions of Christians culminated in the abolition and plunder of the Patriarchate of Peć in 1766.[25] As Ottoman rule in the Pashaluk of Belgrade grew ever more brutal, the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I formally granted the Serbs the right to their autonomous crown land following several Serbian petitions such as the one from Timisoara.[26]
Serbian Revolution and Monarchy (1804–1918)
George Petrović (Karađorđe) ignited the revolution against the Ottomans (1804-1815)

The quest for national emancipation was first undertaken during the Serbian national revolution, in 1804 until 1815. The liberation war was followed by a period of formalization, negotiations and finally, the Constitutionalization, effectivelly ending the process in 1835.[27] For the first time in Ottoman history an entire Christian population had risen up against the Sultan.[28] The entrenchment of French troops in the western Balkans, the incessant political crises in the Ottoman Empire, the growing intensity of the Austro–Russian rivalry in the Balkans, the intermittent warfare which consumed the energies of French and Russian Empires and the outbreak of protracted hostilities between the Porte and Russia are but a few of the major international developments which directly or indirectly influenced the course of the Serbian revolt.[28]

During the First Serbian Uprising, or the first phase of the revolt, led by Karađorđe Petrović, Serbia was independent for almost a decade before the Ottoman army was able to reoccupy the country. Shortly after this, the Second Serbian Uprising began. Led by Miloš Obrenović, it ended in 1815 with a compromise between the Serbian revolutionary army and the Ottoman authorities. German historian Leopold von Ranke published his book “The Serbian revolution” in 1829.[29] They were the easternmost bourgeois revolutions in the 19th-century world.[30] Likewise, the Principality of Serbia was second in Europe, after France, to abolish feudalism.[31]
Principality of Serbia, Serbian Vojvodina with adjacent Ottoman and Habsburg territories

The Convention of Ackerman in 1826, the Treaty of Adrianople in 1829 and finally, the Hatt-i Sharif of 1830, recognized the suzerainty of Serbia with Miloš Obrenović I as its hereditary Prince.[32][33] The struggle for liberty, a more modern society and a nation-state in Serbia won a victory under first constitution in the Balkans on 15 February 1835. It was replaced by a more conservative Constitution in 1838. In the two following decades, temporarily ruled by the Karadjordjevic dynasty, the Principality actively supported the neighboring Habsburg Serbs, especially during the 1848 revolutions. Interior minister Ilija Garašanin published The Draft (for South Slavic unification), which became the standpoint of Serbian foreign policy from the mid-19th century onwards. The government thus developed close ties with the Illyrian movement in Croatia-Slavonia region that was a part of the Austria-Hungary.
Belgrade University (1808)
Sremski Karlovci, site of the May Assembly of Habsburg Serbs in 1848

Following the clashes between the Ottoman army and civilians in Belgrade in 1862, and under pressure from the Great Powers, by 1867 the last Turkish soldiers left the Principality. By enacting a new constitution without consulting the Porte, Serbian diplomats confirmed the de facto independence of the country. In 1876, Serbia declared war on the Ottoman Empire, proclaiming its unification with Bosnia. The formal independence of the country was internationally recognized at the Congress of Berlin in 1878, which formally ended the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78; this treaty, however, prohibited Serbia from uniting with Bosnia and Raška region by placing them under Austro-Hungarian occupation.[34]

From 1815 to 1903, Principality of Serbia was ruled by the House of Obrenović, except from 1842 to 1858, when it was led by Prince Aleksandar Karađorđević. In 1882, Serbia, ruled by King Milan, was raised to Kingdom. In 1903, following May Overthrow, the House of Karađorđević, descendants of the revolutionary leader Đorđe Petrović assumed power. Serbia was the only country in the region that was allowed by the Great Powers to be ruled by its own domestic dynasty. During the Balkan Wars lasting from 1912 to 1913, the Kingdom of Serbia tripled its territory by reacquiring part of Macedonia,[35] Kosovo, and parts of Serbia proper. As for Vojvodina, during the 1848 revolution in Austria, Serbs of Vojvodina established an autonomous region known as Serbian Vojvodina. As of 1849, the region was transformed into a new Austrian crown land known as the Serbian Voivodship and Tamiš Banat. Although abolished in 1860, Habsburg emperors claimed the title Großwoiwode der Woiwodschaft Serbien until the end of the monarchy and the creation of Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes in 1918.
Balkan wars and World War I (1912-1918)
Main article: Serbian Campaign (World War I)

Balkan Wars refer to the two wars that took place in South-eastern Europe in 1912 and 1913. The First Balkan War broke out when the member states of the Balkan League) attacked and divided Ottoman territories in the Balkans, in a seven-month campaign resulting in the Treaty of London. For Kingdom of Serbia this victory enabled territorial expansion into Raška (Sandžak) region and Kosovo. The Second Balkan War soon ensued when Bulgaria, dissatisfied with its gains, turned against its former allies, Serbia and Greece. Their armies repulsed the Bulgarian offensive and counter-attacked penetrating into Bulgaria, while Romania and the Ottomans used the favourable time to intervene against Bulgaria to win territorial gains. In the resulting Treaty of Bucharest, Bulgaria lost most of the territories gained in the First Balkan War, and Kingdom of Serbia annexed Vardar Macedonia. Kingdom of Serbia has enlarged its teritorry by 80% and its population by 50% within just two years; it has also suffered high casualties in the eve of World War I, with around 20,000 dead in the Balkan campaigns.[36]

On 28 June 1914 the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria at Sarajevo in Bosnia-Herzegovina by Gavrilo Princip, a Yugoslav nationalist member of Young Bosnia, and an Austrian citizen, led to Austria-Hungary declaring war on Kingdom of Serbia.[37] In defense of its ally Serbia, Russia started to mobilize its troops, which resulted in Austria-Hungary’s ally Germany declaring war on Russia. The retaliation by Austria-Hungary against Serbia activated a series of military alliances that set off a chain reaction of war declarations across the continent, leading to the outbreak of World War I within a month.[38]
Serbian soldiers are crossing Kolubara river during the Battle of Kolubara in 1914.

The Serbian Army won several major victories against Austria-Hungary at the beginning of World War I, such as the Battle of Cer and Battle of Kolubara – marking the first Allied victories against the Central Powers in World War I.[39] Despite initial success it was eventually overpowered by the joint forces of the German Empire, Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria in 1915. Most of its army and some people went into exile to Greece and Corfu where they recovered, regrouped and returned to the Macedonian front during the World War I to lead a final breakthrough through enemy lines on 15 September 1918, freeing Serbia again and defeating Austro-Hungarian Empire and Bulgaria.[40] Serbia, with its campaign was a major Balkan Entente Power[41] which contributed significantly to the Allied victory in the Balkans in November 1918, especially by enforcing Bulgaria’s capitulation with the aid of France.[42] The country was militarilly classified as a minor Entente power.[43] Serbia was also among the main contributors to the capitulation of Austria-Hungary in Central Europe.

Serbia’s casualties accounted for 8% of the total Entente military deaths or 58% of the regular Serbian Army (420,000 strong) has perished during the conflict.[44] The total number of casualties is placed around 1,000,000[45]-> 25% of Serbia’s prewar size, and an absolute majority (57%) of its overall male population.[46] L.A. Times and N.Y. Times also cited over 1,000,000 victims in their respective articles.[47][48]
Kingdom of Yugoslavia (1918–1945)
See also: Kingdom of Yugoslavia

* Syrmia region was the first among former Habsburg lands to declare union with the Kingdom of Serbia on 24 November 1918.
* Banat, Bačka and Baranja – together called Vojvodina – joined the Kingdom on the next day.
* On 26 November 1918, the Podgorica Assembly deposes the House of Petrovic-Njegos of the Kingdom of Montenegro, opting for the Karadjordjevic dynasty (the ruling dynasty of the Kingdom of Serbia), de facto unifying the two states.
* Bosnia and Herzegovina declares its unification with Belgrade
* On 1 December 1918, the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs and the Kingdom of Serbia joined the unitary Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, that later evolved into the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. King Peter I of Serbia became King Peter I of Yugoslavia.

World War II and civil war in Serbia
Main article: Yugoslav Front (World War II)
Main article: Serbia (1941–1944)
Main article: World War II persecution of Serbs

In 1941, in spite of domestically unpopular attempts by the government of Yugoslavia to appease the Axis powers, Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and other Axis states invaded Yugoslavia. After the invasion, the Kingdom of Yugoslavia was dissolved and Serbia was put under a German Military administration, under a joint German-Serb government with Milan Nedić as Head of the “Government of National Salvation”. Serbia was the scene of a civil war between Royalist Chetniks commanded by Draža Mihailović and Communist Partisans commanded by Josip Broz Tito. Against these forces were arrayed Nedić’s units of the Serbian Volunteer Corps and the Serbian State Guard.
Belgrade Fairground became a Nazi-run concentration camp in 1942.

After one year of occupation, around 16,000 Serbian Jews were murdered in Axis-occupied Serbia, or around 90% of its pre-war Jewish population. Banjica concentration camp was established by the German Military Administration in Serbia.[49] Primary victims were Serbian Jews, Roma, and Serb political prisoners.[50] Other camps in Serbia included the Crveni Krst concentration camp in Niš and the Dulag 183 in Šabac. Staro Sajmište was one of the first concentration camps for Jews in Europe. Staro Sajmište was the largest concentration camp in Axis-occupied Serbia.[51]

Relations between Serbs and Croats in Yugoslavia severely deteriorated during World War II as a result of the creation of the Axis puppet state of the Independent State of Croatia (NDH) that comprised most of present-day Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and parts of present-day Serbia’s Autonomous Province of Vojvodina. The NDH committed large scale persecution and genocide of Serbs, Jews, and Roma.[52] The number of Serbs and others killed varies in sources, but all agree that hundreds of thousands of people were killed. The (lower) estimate by the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum say that NDH authorities murdered between 330,000 and 390,000 ethnic Serb residents of Croatia, Bosnia and parts of Serbia[53] during the period of Ustaše genocide campaign;[54] same figures are supported by the Jewish Virtual Library.[55] The Yad Vashem center reports that over 500,000 Serbs were killed overall in the NDH,[56] whereas the official Yugoslav sources used to estimate over 700,000 victims, mostly Serbs (controversial). The Jasenovac memorial so far lists 75,159 names killed in this concentration camp alone,[57] out of around 100,000 estimated victims.[58] In April 2003 Croatian president Stjepan Mesić apologized on behalf of Croatia to the victims of Jasenovac.[59] In 2006, on the same occasion, he added that to every visitor to Jasenovac it must be clear that Holocaust, genocide and war crimes took place there.[60]

Out of about 1 million casualties in entire Yugoslavia until 1944,[61][62] around 250,000 were Serbia nationals of different ethnicities.[63] The overall number of ethnic Serb casualties in Yugoslavia was around 530,000, out of whom up to 400,000 in the NDH genocide campaign.[64] By late 1944, the joint Soviet and Bulgarian invasion swung in favour of the partisans in the civil war; communists were subsequently established as the ruling elite, whereas the Karadjordjevic dynasty was banned from returning to Serbia.[65] The Syrmia front was the last sequence of the internal war in Serbia following the Soviet-led Belgrade Offensive. Around 70,000 people in Serbia alone perished as the consequence of communist takeover (1944–1946),[66] (around 10,000 of whom were Belgraders)[67] whereas Ministry of Justice figures puts lower estimate around 80,000, of whom 60,000 were of Serbian origin.[68][69]
Serbia within Socialist Yugoslavia (1945–1991)
See also: Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and Socialist Republic of Serbia
Flag of the Socialist Republic of Serbia.

The communist takeover resulted in abolition of the Kingdom, ban on the royal family’s return and a subsequent orchestrated constitutional referendum on the republic-socialist type of government.[70] In the aftermath of the victory of the communist Yugoslav Partisans, a totalitarian single-party state was soon established in Yugoslavia by the League of Communists of Yugoslavia. All opposition was repressed and people deemed to be promoting opposition to the government or promoting separatism were given harsh prison sentences or executed for sedition. Serbia became a constituent republic within the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia known as the Socialist Republic of Serbia and had a republic-branch of the federal Communist party, the League of Communists of Serbia. The republic consisted of Socialist Autonomous Province of Kosovo, Socialist Autonomous Province of Vojvodina, and Central Serbia.
Central Committee of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia during World War II, including Communist Yugoslav Partisan leader Josip Broz Tito (fourth from left) and Serbian Communist Partisan Aleksandar Ranković (to the right of Tito). Ranković was a prominent official in Serbia and Yugoslavia until the 1960s.

One of Serbia’s most powerful and influential politicians in this period was Aleksandar Ranković, a high-ranking official in the federal Communist party who was considered one of the “big four” Yugoslav Communists, alongside Josip Broz Tito, Edvard Kardelj, and Milovan Đilas and who was popular in Serbia.[71] Ranković served as head of the UDBA internal security organization and served as vice-president of Yugoslavia from 1963 to 1966.[71] In 1950, Ranković as minister of interior reported that since 1945 the Yugoslav communist regime had arrested five million people.[72] For years Ranković served as Tito’s right-hand man and supported Tito’s decision to break Yugoslavia away from domination by Soviet Union by having the UDBA obstruct the USSR’s efforts to infiltrate state infrastructure and the Yugoslav Communist party.[73] These actions resulted in the USSR-led Cominform accusing the Yugoslav government of being dominated by a “Tito-Ranković clique” that they accused of being a fascist regime.[74] He supported a centralized Yugoslavia and opposed efforts that promoted decentralization that he deemed to be against the interests of Serb unity.[71] Ranković sought to secure the position of the Serbs in Kosovo and gave them dominance in Kosovo’s nomenklatura.[71] Ranković’s power and agenda waned in the 1960s with the rise to power of reformers who sought decentralization and to preserve the right of national self-determination of the peoples of Yugoslavia.[75] In response to his opposition to decentralization, the Yugoslav government removed Ranković from office in 1966 on various claims, including that he was spying on Tito.[75] Ranković’s dismissal was highly unpopular amongst Serbs.[75]

After the ouster of Ranković, the agenda of pro-decentralization reformers in Yugoslavia, especially from Slovenia and Croatia succeeded in the late 1960s in attaining substantial decentralization of powers, creating substantial autonomy in Kosovo and Vojvodina, and recognizing a Muslim Yugoslav nationality.[75] As a result of these reforms, there was a massive overhaul of Kosovo’s nomenklatura and police, that shifted from being Serb-dominated to ethnic Albanian-dominated through firing Serbs in large scale.[75] Further concessions were made to the ethnic Albanians of Kosovo in response to unrest, including the creation of the University of Pristina as an Albanian language institution.[75] These changes created widespread fear amongst Serbs that they were being made second-class citizens in Yugoslavia by these changes.[76] These changes was harshly criticized by Serbian communist official Dobrica Ćosić, who at the time claimed that they were contrary to Yugoslavia’s commitment to Marxism through conceding to nationalism, especially Albanian nationalism.[77]
Dissolution of Socialist Yugoslavia and Kosovo War (1991–1999)
Main articles: Yugoslav Wars and Kosovo War

Slobodan Milošević rose to power in Serbia in 1989 in the League of Communists of Serbia through a series of coups against incumbent governing members. Milošević promised reduction of powers for the autonomous provinces of Kosovo and Vojvodina. This ignited tensions with the communist leadership of the other republics that eventually resulted in the secession of Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Macedonia from Yugoslavia.[78]

Multiparty democracy was introduced in Serbia in 1990, officially dismantling the former one-party communist system. Critics of the Milošević government claimed that the Serbian government continued to be authoritarian despite constitutional changes as Milošević maintained strong personal influence over Serbia’s state media.[79][80] Milošević issued media blackouts of independent media stations’ coverage of protests against his government and restricted freedom of speech through reforms to the Serbian Penal Code which issued criminal sentences on anyone who “ridiculed” the government and its leaders, resulting in many people being arrested who opposed Milošević and his government.[81]
A crowd of students in the anti-Milošević 1996–1997 protests in Serbia. This was one of a number of large scale protests that took place against the Serbian government during Milošević’s rule.

The period of political turmoil and conflict marked a rise in ethnic tensions and between Serbs and other ethnicities of the former Communist Yugoslavia as territorial claims of the different ethnic factions often crossed into each others’ claimed territories. Serbs feared that the nationalist and separatist government of Croatia was led by Ustase sympathizers who would oppress Serbs living in Croatia while also accused was the separatist government of Bosnia and Herzegovina, being led by Islamic fundamentalists. The governments of Croatia and Bosnia in turn accused the Serbian government of attempting to create a Greater Serbia. These views led to a heightening of xenophobia between the peoples during the wars.
Ušće Tower on fire after being bombed during the Kosovo War, 1999

In 1992, the governments of Serbia and Montenegro agreed to the creation of a new Yugoslav federation called the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia which abandoned the predecessor SFRY’s official endorsement of communism, and instead endorsed democracy. In response to accusations that the Yugoslav government was financially and militarily supporting the Serb military forces in Bosnia & Herzegovina and Croatia, sanctions were imposed by the United Nations, during the 1990s, which led to political isolation, economic decline and hardship, and serious hyperinflation of currency in Yugoslavia.

Milošević represented the Bosnian Serbs at the Dayton peace agreement in 1995, signing the agreement which ended the Bosnian War that internally partitioned Bosnia & Herzegovina largely along ethnic lines into a Serb republic and a Bosniak-Croat federation.

When the ruling Socialist Party of Serbia refused to accept municipal election results in 1997, which resulted in its defeat in the municipalities, Serbians engaged in large protests against the Serbian government and government forces held back the protesters.

Between 1998 and 1999, peace was broken when the worsened situation in Kosovo with continued clashes in Kosovo between the Yugoslav security forces and Kosovo Liberation Army, locally known as the Ushtria Çlirimtare e Kosovës, or the KLA. The confrontations led to a multi-nation conflict called the Kosovo War.
Political transition (since 2000)

In September 2000, opposition parties claimed that Milošević committed fraud in routine federal elections. Street protests and rallies throughout Serbia eventually forced Milošević to concede and hand over power to the recently formed Democratic Opposition of Serbia (Demokratska opozicija Srbije, or DOS). The DOS was a broad coalition of anti-Milošević parties. On 5 October, the fall of Milošević led to end of the international isolation Serbia suffered during the Milošević years. Milošević was sent to the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia on accusations of sponsoring war crimes and crimes against humanity during the wars in Croatia, Bosnia, and Kosovo which he was held on trial to until his death in 2006. With the fall of Milošević, Serbia’s new leaders announced that Serbia would seek to join the European Union. In October 2005, the EU opened negotiations with Serbia for a Stabilization and Association Agreement, a preliminary step towards joining the EU.

Serbia’s political climate since the fall of Milošević remained tense. In 2003, the prime minister Zoran Đinđić was assassinated as result of a plot originating from circles of organized crime and former security forces. Nationalist and EU-oriented political forces in Serbia have remained sharply divided on the political course of Serbia in regards to its relations with the European Union and the West. However, the tensions between those political poles gradually eased since, as the issues of Kosovo independence, economical crisis and aspiration towards accession to the European Union forced the parties to find more common ground.

From 2003 to 2006, Serbia was part of the “State Union of Serbia and Montenegro.” This union was the successor to the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. On 21 May 2006, Montenegro held a referendum to determine whether or not to end its union with Serbia. The next day, state-certified results showed 55.4% of voters in favor of independence. This was just above the 55% required by the referendum.[82]
Independent Serbia (2006–)

On 5 June 2006, following the referendum in Montenegro, the National Assembly of Serbia declared the “Republic of Serbia” to be the legal successor to the “State Union of Serbia and Montenegro.”[83] Serbia and Montenegro became separate nations. However, the possibility of a dual citizenship for the Serbs of Montenegro is a matter of the ongoing negotiations between the two governments. In April 2008 Serbia was invited to join the intensified dialogue programme with NATO despite the diplomatic rift with the Alliance over Kosovo.[84]

Serbia officially applied for the EU membership on 22 December 2009.[85] The government of Serbia has the goal for the EU accession in 2014 per the Papandreou plan – Agenda 2014.[86][87] European Commission’s Vice President Jacques Barrot seems to back this initiative, predicting Serbia’s EU accession within 5 to 7 years following its formal application.[88]
Geography
Main article: Geography of Serbia
Mountain ranges and plains of Serbia.

Located at the crossroads between Central and Southern Europe Serbia is found in the Balkan peninsula and the Pannonian Plain. The Danube passes through Serbia with 21% of its overall length, joined by its biggest tributaries, the Sava and Tisza rivers.[89] The province of Vojvodina covers the northern third of the country, and is entirely located within the Central European Pannonian Plain. Dinaric mountains, gradually rising towards south, cover most of western and central Serbia. The easternmost tip of Serbia extends into the Wallachian Plain. The eastern border of the country intersects with the Carpathian Mountain range,[90] which run through the whole of Central Europe.

The Southern Carpathians meet the Balkan Mountains, following the course of the Great Morava, a 500 km long river. The Midžor peak is the highest point in eastern Serbia at 2156 m. In the southeast, the Balkan Mountains meet the Rhodope Mountains. The Šar Mountains of Kosovo form the border with Albania, with one of the highest peaks in the region, Djeravica, reaching 2656 meters at its peak. Dinaric Alps of Serbia follow the flow of the Drina river, overlooking the Dinaric peaks on the opposite shore in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
National parks

Over 31% of Serbia is covered by forest.[91] National parks take up 10% of the country’s entire territory.[92]
Name↓ Established↓ Size in hectares↓ Map Picture
National park Djerdap 1974. 93.968
Serbia is located in Serbia
IronGate.jpg
National Park Kopaonik 1981. 11.810
Serbia is located in Serbia
Pančićev vrh during winter.jpg
National Park Tara 1981. 22.000
Serbia is located in Serbia
Planina tara.jpg
National Park Šarplanina 1986. 39.000
Serbia is located in Serbia
MountShara.jpg
National Park Fruska Gora 1960. 25.393
Serbia is located in Serbia
Monastère de Mala Remata.jpg
Wetlands
Vlasina Lake in Surdulica.
Name Designated Municiplaity Area (km²)
Gornje Podunavlje 2007 Vojvodina 224,8
Labudovo okno 2006 Bela Crkva 37,33
Ludaš Lake 1977 Subotica 5,93
Obedska bara 1977 Pećinci 175,01
Peštersko polje 2006 Sjenica 34,55
Slano Kopovo 2004 Vojvodina 9,76
Stari Begej – Carska Bara 1996 Zrenjanin 17,67
Vlasina Lake 2007 Surdulica 32,09
Climate
Main article: Climate of Serbia

See also: Climate

The Serbian climate varies between a continental climate in the north, with cold winters, and hot, humid summers with well distributed rainfall patterns, and a more Adriatic climate in the south with hot, dry summers and autumns and relatively cold winters with heavy inland snowfall. Differences in elevation, proximity to the Adriatic Sea and large river basins, as well as exposure to the winds account for climate differences.[93] Vojvodina possesses typical continental climate, with air masses from northern and western Europe which shape its climatic profile. South and South-west Serbia is subject to Mediterranean influences. However, the Dinaric Alps and other mountain ranges contribute to the cooling down of most of the warm air masses. Winters are quite harsh in Sandžak because of the mountains which encircle the plateau.[94]

Mediterranean micro-regions exist throughout southern Serbia,[95] in Zlatibor[96] and the Pčinja District around valley and river Pčinja.[97] The average annual air temperature for the period 1961–90 for the area with an altitude of up to 300 m (984 ft) is 10.9 °C (51.6 °F). The areas with an altitude of 300 to 500 m (984 to 1,640 ft) have an average annual temperature of around 10.0 °C (50.0 °F), and over 1,000 m (3,281 ft) of altitude around 6.0 °C (42.8 °F).[98] The lowest recorded temperature in Serbia was −39.5 °C (−39 °F) in January 13, 1985, Karajukića Bunari in Pešter, and the highest was 44.9 °C or 112.8 °F, in July 24, 2007, recorded in Smederevska Palanka.[98] On July 23, 2007, temperatures were as high as 46 °C or 114.8 °F.[citation needed]
Environment
Serbian Spruce.

Serbia’s environment is monitored by the Ministry for Science and Environmental Protection. a federally funded governmental agency called SEPA, or Serbian Environmental Protection Agency,is responsible for environmental cleanups and protection of wildlife in Serbia.[99] The NATO bombings of 1999 caused lasting damage to the environment of Serbia, with several thousand tons of toxic chemicals stored in targeted factories being released into the soil, atmosphere, and water basins affecting humans and the local wildlife.[100] Recycling is still a fledgeling activity in Serbia, with only 15% of its waste being turned back for re-use, while the Ministry for Science and Environmental Protection is moving towards improving the situation.[101]

The Serbian Energy Efficiency Agency, SEEA, was founded in May 2002. A national non-profit organization, it develops and proposes programmes and measures, co-ordinates and stimulates activities intended to achieve rational use and saving of energy, as well as the increase in efficiency of energy use in all sectors of consumption.[102] The country is looking towards making wider use of renewable energy, a 20 megawatt wind farm is being developed in Belo Blato as part of a 300 megawatt development plan.[103]
Water

Spanning over 588 kilometers across Serbia, the Danube river is the largest source of fresh water. Other freshwater rivers are Sava, Morava, Tisza, and Timok. The Drina river, flows into the Adriatic, while the Pčinja flows into the Aegean. The largest natural lake is Belo Jezero, located in Vojvodina, covering 25 square kilometers. The largest artificial reservoir, Đerdapsee, locally known as Đerdapsko Lake, covers an area of 163 square kilometers on the Serbian side, and it has a total area of 253 square kilometers. The largest waterfall, Jelovarnik, located in Kopaonik, is 71 meters high.
Sava river in Belgrade, view from Kalemegdan fortress.
River Km in Serbia Length total
(km) Number of countries
1 Danube 588 2783 9
2 Great Morava 493 493 1
3 Ibar 250 272 2
4 Drina 220 346 3
5 Sava 206 945 4
6 Timok 202 202 1
7 Tisa 168 966 4
8 Nišava 151 218 2
9 Tamiš 118 359 2
10 Bega 75 244 2
Government
Main articles: Government of Serbia and Politics of Serbia
National Assembly of Serbia located in Belgrade. The building’s cornerstone was laid by King Petar I in 1907.

After the formation of the Republic of Serbia in 2006, the government quickly proclaimed a referendum that ousted the old Milošević-era constitution and created the new framework for the newly created nation by ratifying a new Constitution of Serbia. Serving his second term President Boris Tadić is the leader of the center-left Democratic Party. His second reelection was won with a narrow 50.5% majority in the second round of the presidential election held on 4 February 2008.

Parliamentary elections were held in May 2008. The coalition For a European Serbia led by President Tadics’ party claimed victory, but was significantly short of an absolute majority. Following the negotiations with the leftist coalition centered around the Socialist Party and parties of national minorities, those of Hungarians, Bosniaks and Albanians, an agreement was reached to make-up a new government, headed by Mirko Cvetković. Present-day Serbian politics are fractiously divided on different issues, such as Serbia’s role in the European Union and the scale of government intervention in the economy.

Kosovo has been governed since 1999 by UNMIK, a UN mission. The current Special Representative, Lamberto Zannier, oversees the governance of Kosovo. The Provisional Institutions of Self-Government, has an assembly and a president, currently Fatmir Sejdiu. Although the assembly has declared independence from Serbia, the legality of this move is unclear and is currently being debated in the International Court of Law.
Foreign relations
See also: Foreign relations of Serbia

The Foreign Minister, currently Vuk Jeremić, serves as a director responsible for the Serbian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, a government organization that seeks to maintain and improve neighborly relations among other goals. The four goals for the minister in 2010 are to maintain Serbia’s territorial integrity, aid the accession of Serbia to the European Union, develop good neighborly relations and aid economic diplomacy.[104]
Administrative Division
Main article: Administrative divisions of Serbia
Map of Serbia’s administrative divisions, according to the Law on Territorial Organization[105] and Government’s Enactment of 29 January 1992.[106]

The territorial organization of Serbia is regulated by the Law on Territorial Organization,[105] adopted in the National Assembly of Serbia on 29 December 2007.[107] Under the Law, the units of the territorial organization are: municipalities, cities and autonomous provinces.[105]

Serbia is divided into 150 municipalities and 24 cities, which are the basic units of local self-government.[105] The city may or may not be divided into “city municipalities” (gradske opštine). Five cities, Belgrade, Novi Sad, Niš, Kragujevac and Požarevac comprise several municipalities, divided into “urban” (in the city proper) and “other” (suburban). There are 31 city municipalities (17 in Belgrade, 5 in Niš, 5 in Kragujevac, 2 in Novi Sad and 2 in Požarevac). Of the 150 municipalities, 83 are located in Central Serbia, 39 in Vojvodina and 28 in Kosovo. Of the 24 cities, 17 are in Central Serbia, 6 are in Vojvodina and 1 in Kosovo.[105]

Serbia has two autonomous provinces: Vojvodina in the north (which includes 39 municipalities and 6 cities) and Kosovo and Metohija[105] in the south (with 28 municipalities and 1 city). The Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija has been transferred to the UN administration of UNMIK since June 1999. In February 2008, the Government of Kosovo declared its independence, a move recognized by a minority of countries (most of the European Union and USA) but not recognized by Serbia or the United nations. Autonomous province has its own assembly and executive council (government). It enjoys autonomy on the certain meters like education and culture. The area that lies between Vojvodina and Kosovo is called Central Serbia. Central Serbia is not an administrative division (unlike the autonomous provinces), and it has no regional government of its own.

Municipalities and cities are gathered into districts, which are regional centers of state authority, but have no assemblies of their own; they present purely administrative divisions, and host various state institutions such as funds, office branches and courts. Districts are not defined by the Law on Territorial Organisation, but are organised under the Government’s Enactment of 29 January 1992.[106] Serbia is divided into 29 districts (17 in Central Serbia, 7 in Vojvodina and 5 in Kosovo), while the city of Belgrade presents a district of its own.
Defense
See also: Military of Serbia and Military history of Serbia
Serbian soldiers.

Serbia has a long military history.

Serbia is a constitutionally declared neutral country, as such it is not a member of NATO or any other military alliance, nor does it participate in military operations on foreign soil. It does however participate in peacekeeping operations under United Nations authority.[12]

The Armed Forces of Serbia are divided into three basic pillars of command:

* Land Forces Command
* Air Force and Defense Command
* Training Command

Conscription is still mandatory with regular service lasting 6 months, but a high number of recruits take the opportunity to put forth conscientious objection and serve 9 months in civil service.[108] Thorough reforms and full professionalization are underway. Currently, the largest portion of the budget goes to paying pensions and salaries of soldiers. Professionalization of the army is expected to be completed by the end of 2010.[109]
Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Serbia
Serbian citizens from ethnic minority groups and communities make up 18% of Serbia’s population.

As of January 2010, Serbia without Kosovo is estimated to have 7,334,935 citizens.[110] The 2002 census was not conducted in Kosovo, which was under United Nations administration at the time. According to CIA estimates, Kosovo has around 1,8 million inhabitants, majority of them Albanian with Serbs of Kosovo coming in second place.[111]

Ethnic Serbs, or those who identify have declared themselves only as Serbs, are the largest ethnic group in Serbia and they represent 83% of the total population in the territory of Central Serbia and Vojvodina. With a population of 290.000, Hungarians are the second largest ethnic group in Serbia, representing 14.3% of the population in Vojvodina. Other minority groups include Bosniaks, Roma, Albanians, Croats, Bulgarians, Montenegrins, Slovaks, Vlachs and Romanians.[112]

Roma tend to be underrepresented in census data: while official Census 2002 registered 108,193 members of this minority,[113] the higher UN assessments suggest 450,000 to 500,000 Roma live in Serbia, many of whom have been exiled from Kosovo.[114][115] The German minority in Vojvodina was more numerous in the past (336,430 in 1900, or 23.5% of the population).[116] The northern province of Vojvodina is ethnically and religiously diverse. Ethnic composition of Kosovo is estimated as 88% Albanians, 7% Serbs and 5% others.[111]

Refugees and internally displaced persons (IDPs) in Serbia form between 7% and 7.5% of its population – about half a million refugees sought refuge in the country following the series of Yugoslav wars, mainly from Croatia, and to a lesser extent from Bosnia and Herzegovina and the IDPs from Kosovo, which are currently the most numerous at over 200,000.[117] Serbia has the largest refugee population in Europe.[118]

On the other hand, it is estimated that 500,000 people have left Serbia during the ’90s alone, and around 20% of those had college or higher education.[119][120] Serbia has the fourth oldest overall population on the planet,[121] mostly due to heavy migration and low level of fertility, which is expected to continue in long terms. In addition, Serbia has among the highest negative growth population rates in the world, ranking 225th out of 233 countries overall.[122]
Ethnic groups in Serbia (excluding Kosovo) in 2002[112]

Serbs
 
82.86%
Hungarians
 
3.91%
Bosniaks
 
1.81%
Roma
 
1.44%
Yugoslavs
 
1.08%
Croats
 
0.94%
Montenegrins
 
0.92%
Albanians
 
0.82%
Slovaks
 
0.79%
Vlachs
 
0.53%
Bulgarians
 
0.28%
Other
 
4.90%
Largest Cities
Main article: List of cities in Serbia
Leading Urban areas of Serbia (excluding Kosovo)[123]

Belgrade
Belgrade
Novi Sad
Novi Sad
Niš
Niš
Kragujevac
Kragujevac
Subotica
Subotica
Rank Core City Urban Population Municipal Population
view • talk • edit

Zrenjanin
Zrenjanin
Pančevo
Pančevo
Čačak
Čačak
Leskovac
Leskovac
Smederevo
Smederevo
1 Belgrade 1,119,642[124] 1,576,124
2 Novi Sad 191,405 299,294
3 Niš 173,724 250,518
4 Kragujevac 146,373 175,802
5 Subotica 99,981 148,401
6 Zrenjanin 79,773 132,051
7 Pančevo 77,087 127,162
8 Čačak 73,217 117,072
9 Leskovac 63,185 156,252
10 Smederevo 62,805 109,809
11 Valjevo 61,035 96,761
12 Kraljevo 57,411 121,707
13 Kruševac 57,347 131,368
14 Šabac 55,163 122,893
15 Vranje 55,052 87,288
16 Užice 54,717 83,022
17 Novi Pazar 54,604 85,996
18 Sombor 51,471 97,263
19 Kikinda 41,935 67,002
20 Požarevac 41,736 74,902
Religion
Main article: Religion in Serbia
Religious groups in Serbia(excluding Kosovo) in 2002[112]

Eastern Orthodoxy
 
84.1%
Roman Catholicism
 
6.24%
Islam
 
3.42%
Protestantism
 
1.44%

For centuries straddling the religious boundary between Orthodoxy and Roman Catholicism, joined up later by Islam, Serbia remains one of the most diverse countries on the continent. While formation of the nation-state and turbulent history of 19th and 20th century has Vojvodina province is still25% Catholic or Protestant, while Central Serbia and Belgrade regions are over 90% Orthodox Christian.[112] Kosovo consists of a 90% Albanian Muslim majority.
Cathedral of Saint Sava, dedicated to Saint Sava, founder of the Serbian Orthodox Church, is one of the largest in the world.

Among the Eastern Orthodox churches, the Serbian Orthodox Church is the largest. According to the 2002 Census,[125] 82% of the population of Serbia, excluding Kosovo, or 6,2 million people declared their nationality as Serbian, who are overwhelmingly adherents of the Serbian Orthodox Church. Other Orthodox Christian communities in Serbia include Montenegrins, Romanians, Vlachs, Macedonians and Bulgarians. Together they comprise about 84% of the entire population.

Catholicism is mostly present in Vojvodina, especially its northern part, which is home to minority ethnic groups such as Hungarians, Slovaks, Croats, Bunjevci, and Czechs. There are an estimated 388,000 baptized Catholics in Serbia, roughly 6.2% of the population, mostly in northern Serbia.[112]

Protestantism accounts for about 1.1% of the country’s population, chiefly among Reformist Hungarians and Slovaks in Vojvodina. Islam has a strong historic following in the southern regions of Serbia – Sandžak (Raška) region and Preševo, Bujanovac and Medveđa municipalities in the south-east. Bosniaks are the largest Muslim community in Serbia with 140,000 followers or 2% of the total population, followed by Albanians,[112] whereas a part of Serbian Roma are Muslim.

With the exile of Jews from Spain during the Inquisition era, thousands of escaping families and individuals made their way through Europe to the Balkans. A goodly number settled in Serbia and became part of the general population. They were well-accepted and during the ensuing generations the majority assimilated or became traditional or secular, rather than remain orthodox as had been the original immigrants. Later on the wars that ravaged the region resulted in a great part of the Serbian Jewish population emigrating from Europe.[citation needed]
Economy
Main article: Economy of Serbia
Service industry makes up 63% of Serbia’s GDP.

With a GDP PPP for 2010 estimated at $80.602 billion[2] or $10,897 per capita PPP, the Republic of Serbia is an upper-middle income economy by the World Bank.[126] Foreign Direct Investment in 2006 was $5.85 billion or €4.5 billion. FDI for 2007 reached $4.2 Billion while real GDP per capita figures are estimated to have reached $6,781 in April 2009.[2] The GDP growth rate showed increase by 6.3% in 2005,[127] 5.8% in 2006,[128] reaching 7.5% in 2007 and 8.7% in 2008[129] as the fastest growing economy in the region.[130] According to Eurostat data, Serbian PPS GDP per capita stood at 37 per cent of the EU average in 2008.[131]
20% of the world’s raspberries are grown in Serbia.

The economy has a high unemployment rate of 14%[132] and a unfavourable trade deficit. The country expects some major economic impulses and high growth rates in the next years. Given its recent high economic growth rates, which averaged 6.6% in the last three years, foreign analysts have sometimes labeled Serbia as the “Balkan Tiger”.
National Bank of Serbia established in 1884.

Apart from its free-trade agreement with the EU as its associate member, Serbia is the only European country outside the former Soviet Union to have free trade agreements with the Russian Federation and, more recently, Belarus.[133] Apart from its favorable economic agreements with both the East and West, such steps could be soon undertaken with Turkey and Iran.[134] By doing this Serbia hopes to set up an export-oriented economy.[134]

Blue-chip corporations investing in Serbia include: US Steel, Philip Morris, Microsoft, FIAT, Coca-Cola, Lafarge, Siemens, Carlsberg and others.[135][136] In the energy, Russian giants Lukoil and Gazprom have invested heavily.[137] The banking sector has attracted investments from Banca Intesa Italy, Crédit Agricole and Société Générale France, HVB Bank Germany, Erste Bank Austria, Eurobank EFG and Piraeus Bank Greece, and others.[138] U.S. based Citibank, opened a representative office in Belgrade in December 2006.[139] In the trade sector, biggest foreign investors are France’s Intermarche, German Metro Cash & Carry, Greek Veropoulos, and Slovenian Mercator.

Serbia grows about one-third of the world’s raspberries and is the leading frozen fruit exporter.[140]
Communication
Light blue represent recognition of Serbian as minority language, dark blue official language.
Main article: Communications in Serbia

89% of households in Serbia have fixed telephone lines, and with over 9.60 million users the number of cell-phones surpasses the number of total population population of Serbia itself by 30%. Largest cellphone providers are Telekom Srbija with 5.65 million subscribers, Telenor with 3.1 million users and Vip mobile covering the rest of the populatiob.[141] 46.8% of households have computers, 36.7% use the internet, and 42% have cable TV, which puts the country ahead of certain member states of the EU.[142][143][144][145][146] Serbia is ranked 59th in the world in terms of Internet usage out of 216 states by the CIA World Factbook.[147] With 45% of its population using the internet, Serbia is ahead of all Balkan countries except for Croatia in terms of internet service penetration.[148]
Transportation
Main article: Transportation in Serbia
Nikola Tesla Belgrade Airport, the busiest and largest airport in Serbia is named after Nikola Tesla.

Serbia owns one of the world’s oldest airline carriers, Jat Airways, founded in 1927.[149] There are 4 international airports in Serbia: Belgrade Nikola Tesla Airport, Niš Constantine the Great Airport and Vršac international airport as well as one in Kosovo, Pristina International Airport .

Historians have labeled the entire Serbia, and especially the valley of the Morava, as “the crossroads between East and West”, which is one of the primary reasons for its turbulent history. The Morava valley route, which avoids mountainous regions, is by far the easiest way of traveling overland from continental Europe to Greece and Asia Minor. Modern Serbia was the first among its neighbors to buy railroads- in 1858 the first train arrived to Vrsac, then Austria-Hungary[150] (by 1882 route to Belgrade and Niš was completed). Serbian Railways handles the entire railway links in Serbia.

European routes E65, E70, E75 and E80, as well as the E662, E761, E762, E763, E771, and E851 pass through the country. The E70 westwards from Belgrade and most of the E75 are modern highways of motorway / autobahn standard or close to that. As of 2005, Serbia has 1,481,498 registered cars, 16,042 motorcycles, 9,626 buses, 116,440 trucks, 28,222 special transport vehicles, 126,816 tractors, and 101,465 trailers.[151]
Water transportation

Although landlocked, there are around 2000 km of navigable rivers and canals, the largest of which are: the Danube, Sava, Tisa, joined by the Timiş River and Begej, all of which connect Serbia with Northern and Western Europe through the Rhine–Main–Danube Canal and North Sea route, to Eastern Europe via the Tisa, Timiş, Begej and Danube Black Sea routes, and to Southern Europe via the Sava river. The two largest Serbian cities – Belgrade[152] and Novi Sad, as well as Smederevo – are major regional Danubian harbours.[153] The Danube River, central Europe’s connection to the Black Sea, flows through Serbia. Through Danube-Rhine-Main canal the North Sea is also accessible. Tisza river offers a connection with Eastern Europe while the Sava river connects her to western former Yugoslav republics near the Adriatic Sea.
Tourism
Main article: Tourism in Serbia
Studenica monastery, founded in 1190 by Serbian nobleman Stefan Nemanja, is a UNESCO-protected religious site that is also open to the public.
Dunđerski castle (1919), Vojvodina tourist attraction

Serbia’s government, businesses, and citizen’s concentrate their tourism on the villages and mountains of the country. The most famous mountain resorts are Zlatibor, Kopaonik, and the Tara. There are also many spas in Serbia, one the biggest of which is Vrnjačka Banja. Other spas include Soko Banja and Niška Banja. There is a significant amount of tourism in the largest cities like Belgrade, Novi Sad and Niš, but also in the rural parts of Serbia like the volcanic wonder of Đavolja varoš,[154] Christian pilgrimage across the country[155] and the cruises along the Danube, Sava or Tisza. There are several popular festivals held in Serbia, such as the EXIT Festival, proclaimed to be the best European festival by UK Festival Awards 2007 and Yourope, the European Association of the 40 largest festivals in Europe and the Guča trumpet festival. 2,2 million tourists visited Serbia in 2007, a 15% increase compared to 2006.[156]
Energy
See also: Wind power in Serbia

Most of the energy is currently produced comes from coal or hydroelectric dams. Energy consumption is expected to exceed energy production by 2012 and Elektroprivreda Srbije, Serbia’s largest energy producer, is expected to develop Đerdap III (Ђердап III), a hydroelectric dam with approximately 2.4 gigawatts of power.[157]

Naftna Industrija Srbije (Нафтна Индустрија Србије / Naftna industrija Srbije), Serbia’s largest oil producer was recently acquired by Russian energy giant Gazprom. The two companies, are planning to build the Serbian portion of the South Stream gas pipeline. The two companies are also building a 300 million cubic meters gas storage at Banatski Dvor, located approximately 60 kilometers northeast of Novi Sad. overall, the South Stream gas pipeline project will be the largest since the 19th century railway construction through Serbia.
Culture
Main article: Serbian culture
The White Angel in Mileševa monastery, 1230s, Latin period of Byzantine art is one of many cultural monuments in Serbia.

For centuries straddling the boundaries between East and West, Serbia had been divided among: the Eastern and Western halves of the Roman Empire; between Kingdom of Hungary, Bulgarian Empire, Frankish Kingdom and Byzantium; and between the Ottoman Empire and the Austrian Empire and Austria-Hungary, as well as Venice in the south. The result of these overlapping influences are distinct characters and sharp contrasts between various Serbian regions, its north being more tied to Western Europe and south leaning towards the Balkans and the Mediterranean Sea.
Miroslav Gospels, one of the oldest surviving documents written in Serbian Church Slavonic, 1186, UNESCOs Memory of the World Programme.

Despite these confronting influences Serbian identity is quite solid, being described as the “most westernized of the Eastern Orthodox peoples, both socially and culturally” by the Encyclopedia of World History (2001).[158]

The Byzantine Empire’s influence on Serbia was profound, through introduction of Greek Orthodoxy from 7th century onwards today Serbian Orthodox Church has an overwhelming influence on the makeup of cultural objects in Serbia. Different influences were also present- chiefly the Ottoman, Hungarian, Austrian and also Venetian, also known as coastal Serbs. Serbs use both the Cyrillic and Latin alphabets.

The monasteries of Serbia, built largely in the Middle Ages, are one of the most valuable and visible traces of medieval Serbia’s association with the Byzantium and the Orthodox World, but also with the Romanic Western Europe that Serbia had close ties with back in Middle Ages. Most of Serbia’s queens still remembered today in Serbian history were of foreign origin, including Hélène d’Anjou, a cousin of Charles I of Sicily, Anna Dondolo, daughter of the Doge of Venice, Enrico Dandolo, Catherine of Hungary, and Symonide of Byzantium.

Serbia has eight cultural sites marked on the UNESCO World Heritage list: Stari Ras and Sopoćani monasteries added to the Heritage list in 1979, Studenica Monastery added in 1986, the Medieval Serbian Monastic Complex in Kosovo, comprising: Dečani Monastery, Our Lady of Ljeviš, Gračanica and Patriarchate of Pec, monestaties were added in 2004, and put on the endangered list in 2006, and Gamzigrad – Romuliana, Palace of Galerius, was added in 2007. Likewise, there are 2 literary memorials added on the UNESCO’s list as a part of the Memory of the World Programme: Miroslav Gospels, handwriting from the 12th century, added in 2005, and Nikola Tesla’s archive added in 2003.

The most prominent museum in Serbia is the National Museum, founded in 1844; it houses a collection of more than 400,000 exhibits, over 5600 paintings and 8400 drawings and prints, and includes many foreign masterpiece collections and the famous Miroslavljevo Jevanđelje. Currently museum is under reconstruction. The museum is situated in Belgrade.
Heritage
See also: Cultural Property of Great Importance and World Heritage Sites in Serbia
Serbia in the list of World Heritage Sites
Image Name Location Notes Date added Type
Sopocani monastery16.jpg Stari Ras Novi Pazar Medieval monuments, added as Stari Ras and Sopoćani 1979 Cultural[159]
Manastir Studenica 1.jpg Studenica monastery Kraljevo Serbian Orthodox monastery 1986 Cultural[160]
Gracanica1.jpg Medieval Monuments in Kosovo Kosovo Visoki Dečani, Patriarchate of Peć, Our Lady of Ljeviš, Gračanica monastery. Heritage in danger. 2006 Cultural[161]
Romuliana peristyle.jpg Gamzigrad Zaječar Late period Roman sites. 2007 Cultural[162]
Theatre and cinema
Main article: Cinema of Serbia
Renowned film director Emir Kusturica

Serbia has a well-established theatrical tradition with many theaters. The Serbian National Theatre was established in 1861 with its building dating from 1868. The company started performing opera from the end of the 19th century and the permanent opera was established in 1947. It established a ballet company. Bitef, Belgrade International Theatre Festival, is one of the oldest theatre festivals in the world. New Theatre Tendencies is the constant subtitle of the Festival. Founded in 1967, Bitef has continually followed and supported the latest theater trends. It has become one of five most important and biggest European festivals. It has become one of the most significant culture institutions of Serbia.

Cinema prospered after World War II. The most notable postwar director was Dušan Makavejev who was internationally recognised for Love Affair: Or the Case of the Missing Switchboard Operator in 1969 focussing on Yugoslav politics. Makavejev’s Montenegro was made in Sweden in 1981. Zoran Radmilović was one of the most notable actors of the postwar period. Serbian cinema continued to make progress despite the turmoil in the 1990s. Emir Kusturica won a Golden Palm for Best Feature Film at the Cannes Film Festival for Underground in 1995. In 1998, Kusturica won a Silver Lion for directing Black Cat, White Cat. As at 2001, there were 167 cinemas in Central Serbia and Vojvodina combined, and over 4 million Serbs went to the cinema in that year. In 2005, San zimske noći A Midwinter Night’s Dream directed by Goran Paskaljević caused controversy over its criticism of Serbia’s role in the Yugoslav wars in the 1990s.
Education
Main article: Education in Serbia
Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts directs a number of scientific research projects, including many influential philosophical papers on government and national policies that have helped shaped the Serbian society since 1886.

Education in Serbia is regulated by the Ministry of Education. Education starts in either pre-schools or elementary schools. Children enroll in elementary schools (Serbian: Osnovna škola / Основна школа) at the age of seven, and remain there for eight years. After compulsory education students have the opportunity to either attend a high school for another four years, specialist school, for 2 to 4 years, or to enroll in vocational training, for 2 to 3 years. Following the completion of high school or a specialist school, students have the opportunity to attend university.

In Serbia, some of the largest universities are:

* University of Belgrade
* University of Kragujevac
* University of Niš
* University of Novi Sad
* University of Pristina
* University of Novi Pazar

The University of Belgrade is the oldest and currently the biggest university in Serbia. Established in 1808, it has 31 faculties, and since its inception, has trained an estimated 330,000 graduates. Other universities with a significant number of faculty and alumni are those of Novi Sad (founded 1960), Kragujevac (founded 1976) and Niš (founded 1965).

The roots of the Serbian education system date back to the 11th and 12th centuries when the first Catholic colleges were founded in Titel and Bač, in Vojvodina province. Medieval Serbian education, however, was mostly conducted through the Serbian Orthodox monasteries of Sopoćani, Studenica, and Patriarchate of Peć. Serbian Orthodox education starting from the rise of Raška in 12th century, when Serbs overwhelmingly embraced Orthodoxy rather than Catholicism. The oldest college faculty within current borders of Serbia dates back to 1778; founded in the city of Sombor, then Habsburg Empire, it was known under the name Norma and was the oldest Slavic Teacher’s college in Southern Europe.[163][citation needed]
Holidays

All holidays in Serbia are regulated by the Law of national and other holidays in Republic of Serbia (Закон о државним и другим празницима у Републици Србији, Zakon o državnim i drugim praznicima u Republici Srbiji). The following holidays are observed state-wide:[164]
Date Name Serbian name Notes
1 January / 2 January New Year’s Day Нова Година, Nova Godina non-working holiday
7 January Orthodox Christmas Божић, Božić non-working holiday
27 January Saint Sava’s Day Савиндан – Дан Духовности, Savindan – Dan Duhovnosti working holiday (in memory on the founder of the Serbian Orthodox Church)
15 February Candlemas – Statehood day Сретење – Дан државности – Sretenje – Dan državnosti non-working holiday (in memory on the First Serbian Uprising)
2 April Orthodox Great Friday Велики петак – Veliki petak non-working holiday (date for 2010 only)
3 April Orthodox Great Saturday Велика субота – Velika subota non-working holiday (date for 2010 only)
4 April Orthodox Easter Васкрс – Vaskrs non-working holiday (date for 2010 only)
5 April Orthodox Easter Monday Велики понедељак – Veliki ponedeljak non-working holiday (date for 2010 only)
1 May / 2 May Labour Day Дан рада – Dan rada non-working holiday
9 May Victory Day Дан победе – Dan pobede working holiday
28 June Saint Vitus Day – Vidovdan Видовдан – Дан Срба палих за отаџбину, Vidovdan – Dan Srba palih za otadžbinu working holiday (in memory of the Battle of Kosovo in 1389)

Also, members of other religions have the right not to work on days of their holidays.
Cuisine
Main article: Serbian cuisine

Serbian cuisine is varied, the turbulent historical events influenced the food and people, and each region has its own peculiarities and differences. It is strongly influenced by the Byzantine-Greek, Mediterranean, Oriental and Austro-Hungarian styles. Many of the traditional Serbian foods like ćevapčići, soup, pljeskavica, gibanica, are enjoyed even today.

Medenjaci

Ćevapčići
Architecture

Serbia has a diverse history and this diversity is reflected in its architecture. Serbian monasteries are built in the style of Byzantine architecture, similar to the architecture of Russian churches. In northern Serbia Baroque style of architecture is predominant while in the south oriental style is dominant. In the capital city, Belgrade, many buildings are built in the Art Deco architectural style. After the second world war, the capital city, Belgrade, expanded westwards. The new neighborhood called, New Belgrade, was built according to Le Corbusier’s urban planning ideology. Many of the buildings of Belgrade is shocked that during the time of Yugoslavia were built in the style of socialist modernism. The current predominating architectural style is Western and consists of glass façades.
Sports
Main article: Sport in Serbia
Marakana Stadium, built partly underground, is the largest football stadium in Serbia and home of the FC Red Star.

Sports in Serbia revolve mostly around team sports: football, basketball, water polo, volleyball, handball, and, more recently, tennis. The two main football clubs in Serbia are Red Star Belgrade and FK Partizan, both from capital Belgrade. Red Star is the only Serbian and former Yugoslav club that has won a UEFA competition, winning the 1991 European Cup in Bari, Italy. The same year in Tokyo, Japan, the club won the Intercontinental Cup. Partizan is the first club from Serbia to take part in the UEFA Champions League group stages subsequent to the breakup of the Former Yugoslavia. The matches between two rival clubs are known as “Eternal Derby” (Serbian: Вечити дерби, Večiti derbi). Serbia and Italy were host nations at 2005 Men’s European Volleyball Championship. The Serbia men’s national volleyball team is the direct descendant of Yugoslavia men’s national volleyball team. After becoming independent, Serbia won bronze medal at 2007 Men’s European Volleyball Championship held in Moscow.

Milorad Čavić and Nađa Higl in swimming, Olivera Jevtić, Dragutin Topić in athletics, Aleksandar Karakašević in table tennis, Jasna Šekarić in shooting are also very popular athletes in Serbia.
Basketball
Belgrade Arena regularly holds 23,000 people and is one of the largest sport venues in Europe .
Main article: Serbia national basketball team

Serbia is one of the traditional powerhouses of world basketball, winning various FIBA World Championships, multiple Eurobaskets and Olympic medals (albeit as FR Yugoslavia). Serbia’s national basketball team is considered the successor to the successful Yugoslavia national basketball team. Serbia has won FIBA world championships five times and has won second place in the European championship in 2009. Players from Serbia made deep footprint in history of basketball, having success both in the top leagues of Europe and in the NBA. Many Serbs have played in the NBA such as Vlade Divac, Predrag Stojakovic, Nenad Krstic, Darko Milicic, and Vladimir Radmanovic.

Basketball League of Serbia Is the highest professional basketball to Serbia. For the eighth consecutive year, KK Partizan is currently the reigning champion of the league, followed by KK Crvena Zvezda. KK Partizan was the European champion in 1992 with curiosity of winning the title, although playing all but one of the games (crucial quarter-final game vs. Knorr) on foreign grounds; FIBA decided not to allow teams from Former Yugoslavia play their home games at their home venues, because of open hostilities in the region. KK Partizan was not allowed to defend the title in the 1992–1993 season, because of UN sanction.

Serbia has hosted the Eurobasket tournament in 2005.
Association Football
Main article: Serbia national football team
Serbian national football team.

Serbia’s national football team made their first appearance during the qualifying rounds for Euro 2008 although they did not qualify for Euro 2008. During the qualifying tournament for the World Cup 2010, Serbia won the first place in its group and consequently qualified directly for the 2010 World Cup Championship. Some members of the national team are international players such as, Nemanja Vidić, Branislav Ivanović, Miloš Krasić, Neven Subotić, and Nikola Žigić.

Serbian Superliga, is the highest professional league in the country. The 2008/2009 season champion was FK Partizan, followed by FK Vojvodina in the second place, and Red Star Belgrade in the third.
Tennis
Novak Đoković, one of the top 5 tennis players in the world.

Serbian tennis players Novak Đoković, Ana Ivanović, Jelena Janković, Nenad Zimonjić, Janko Tipsarević and Viktor Troicki are very successful and led to a popularisation of tennis in Serbia. Novak Đoković is the founder of an ATP tennis tournament, Serbia Open.

Other well-known players are Monika Seles and Jelena Dokić. Playing for Yugoslavia, Seles has won the Australian Open in 1991, 1992, and 1993, the French open in 1990, 1991 and 1992, and US Open in 1991 and 1992. Other Serbian Grand Slam winners were Novak Djokovic who won the 2008 Australian Open and Ana Ivanovic who won the 2008 French Open Women’s Singles Title. Jelena Jankovic was however, a finalist once in the 2008 US Open.
Waterpolo

Serbia men’s national water polo team is the reigning Water polo world champion winnig the 2009 World Championships in Rome, Italy. Yugoslavia national water polo team was twice the World Champion (in 1986 and 1991) and once the European Champion (1991). After becoming independent, Serbia have won three European Championships (2001, 2003 and 2006), finished as runner-up in 2008, won two World Championships (2005 and 2009) and won bronze medal at 2008 Summer Olympics held in Beijing.

VK Partizan won 6 titles of European champion and it is the second best European team in history of water polo.

Serbian capital Belgrade hosted the 2006 Men’s European Water Polo Championship.
International rankings
Organization Survey Ranking
Yale, Columbia University (at the World Economic Forum) Environmental Performance Index[165] 29 out of 163
Institute for Economics and Peace [5] Global Peace Index[166] 78 out of 144
Reporters Without Borders Worldwide Press Freedom Index 2009 62 out of 175
The Heritage Foundation/The Wall Street Journal Index of Economic Freedom 2010 104 out of 179
Transparency International Corruption Perceptions Index 2009 83 out of 180
United Nations Development Programme Human Development Index 2009 67 out of 182
Networked Readiness Index Networked Readiness Index 2008–2009 84 out of 134
See also
Flag of Serbia.svg Serbia portal

* Outline of Serbia
* International rankings of Serbia

References

* This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the Library of Congress Country Studies.
* This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the CIA World Factbook.

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96. ^ http://www.rpk-uzice.co.yu/en/tourism/index.php
97. ^ [2][dead link]
98. ^ a b “Basic Climate Characteristics for the Territory of Serbia”. Republic Hydrometeorological Service of Serbia. http://www.hidmet.gov.rs/eng/meteorologija/klimatologija_srbije.php.
99. ^ [3][dead link]
100. ^ From the Pancevo industrial complex (petrochemical plant, fertilizer plant and oil refinery), which stands at the confluence of the Tamis River and the Danube, more than 100 tons of mercury, 2,100 metric tons of 1.2-dichlorethane, 1,500 tons of vinyl chloride (3,000 times higher than permitted levels), 15,000 tons of ammonia, 800 tons of hydrochloric acid, 250 tons of liquid chlorine, vast quantities of dioxin (a component of Agent Orange and other defoliants), and significant quantities of sulphur dioxide and nitrates were released into the atmosphere, soil and waterways. From the Zastava car factory in Kragujevac, unknown quantities of pyralene oil leaked into the Lepenica River (a tributary of the Velika Morava) via the sewage system. http://www.open.ac.uk/daptf/froglog/FROGLOG-58-3.html
101. ^ “Blic Online | Serbia recycling 15 % of waste”. Blic.rs. http://www.blic.rs/society.php?id=2863. Retrieved 2010-04-28.
102. ^ “all Serbia.doc” (PDF). http://www.un.org/esa/agenda21/natlinfo/countr/serbiamontenegro/energy.pdf. Retrieved 2010-04-28.
103. ^ “20-MW Wind Project Being Developed in Serbia”. Renewable Energy World. http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2008/09/20-mw-wind-project-being-developed-in-serbia-53539. Retrieved 2010-04-28.
104. ^ “View source – Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia”. En.wikipedia.org. http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Serbia&action=edit&section=22. Retrieved 2010-04-28.
105. ^ a b c d e f Law on Territorial Organization and Local Self-Government, Parliament of Serbia (Serbian)
106. ^ a b Government of Serbia: Districts In Serbia
107. ^ Lokalni i pokrajinski izbori u maju, b92, 29 December 2007 (Serbian)
108. ^ “Serbia-Montenegro shortens obligatory military service to six months”. Xinhua. 2005-10-23. http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/200510/23/eng20051023_216151.html.
109. ^ “Bez smanjivanja Vojske Srbije” (in Serbian). B92. 2008-09-21. http://www.b92.net/info/vesti/index.php?yyyy=2008&mm=09&dd=21&nav_id=319778.
110. ^ “Latest Indicators”. Statistical office of the Republic of Serbia. 2009-01-01. http://webrzs.statserb.sr.gov.yu/axd/en/index.php.
111. ^ a b https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/kv.html
112. ^ a b c d e f “Official Results of Serbian Census 2003 – Population”] (in Serbian). p. 13. http://webrzs.stat.gov.rs/axd/Zip/VJN3.pdf.
113. ^ http://webrzs.stat.gov.rs/axd/Zip/VJN3.pdf
114. ^ Success Stories – School for All. Government of the Republic of Serbia.
115. ^ A young Roma woman in Serbia overcomes poverty and discrimination. UNICEF Serbia.
116. ^ According to the 1921 census, the German community was the largest non-Slavic ethnic group in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia (505,790, or 4.22% of the population). [4] (PDF)
117. ^ The World Factbook. “Serbia”. Central Intelligence Agency. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/rb.html.
118. ^ Tanjug (22 October 2007). “Serbia’s refugee population largest in Europe”. B92. http://www.b92.net/eng/news/society-article.php?yyyy=2007&mm=10&dd=22&nav_id=44785.
119. ^ “Serbia seeks to fill the 90′s brain-drainage gap”. Emportal. 2008-09-05. http://www.emportal.rs/en/news/serbia/61642.html.
120. ^ “Survey S&M 1/2003″. Yugoslav Survey. http://www.pregled-rs.com/article.php?pid=208&id=19625&lang=en.
121. ^ “Serbia’s Population in Sharp Decline”. Balkan Insight. 2008-07-11. http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/main/news/11763/.
122. ^ “Country Comparison :: Population growth rate”. CIA World Factbook. 2002. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2002rank.html?countryName=Serbia&countryCode=ri#ri.
123. ^ Results of Serbian Census 2002, Book 1: Nationality or Ethnic Data by Communities (Serbian) The census was not concluded on the territory of Kosovo.
124. ^ Official Results of Serbian Census 2002, page 14: Beograd – naselje: 1119642 (Serbian)
125. ^ “Statistical office of the Republic of Serbia” (in Serbian). http://webrzs.stat.gov.rs/.
126. ^ “Upper-middle-income economies”. The World Bank. http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/DATASTATISTICS/0,,contentMDK:20421402~pagePK:64133150~piPK:64133175~theSitePK:239419,00.html#Upper_middle_income.
127. ^ Gross Domestic Product of the Republic of Serbia 1997–2005, Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia
128. ^ Economic Trends in the Republic of Serbia 2006, Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia
129. ^ “National Account Statistics”. Webrzs.stat.gov.rs. 2008-06-30. http://webrzs.stat.gov.rs/axd/en/index1.php?SifraVesti=272&Link=. Retrieved 2010-04-28.
130. ^ “REPUBLICKI ZAVOD ZA STATISTIKU – Republike Srbije”. Webrzs.stat.gov.rs. 2007-12-27. http://webrzs.stat.gov.rs/axd/index1.php?SifraVesti=233&Link=. Retrieved 2010-04-28.
131. ^ “GDP per capita in PPS”. Eurostat. http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_PUBLIC/2-25062009-BP/EN/2-25062009-BP-EN.PDF. Retrieved 2009-06-25.
132. ^ “Unemployment rate rises in Serbia :: EMG :: Business news from Serbia”. Emportal.rs. http://www.emportal.rs/en/news/serbia/83771.html. Retrieved 2010-04-28.
133. ^ “Serbia, Belarus agree free trade to woo investors”. Forbes.com. 2009-03-31. http://www.forbes.com/feeds/afx/2009/03/31/afx6234590.html. Retrieved 2010-04-28.
134. ^ a b “Business News :”. Balkans.com. http://www.balkans.com/open-news.php?uniquenumber=35690051. Retrieved 2010-04-28.
135. ^ “SIEPA: Success stories”. http://www.siepa.gov.rs/site/en/home/2/success_stories/.
136. ^ “US embassy: private sector investments”. http://belgrade.usembassy.gov/partnership/invest.html.
137. ^ “Ministry of economic relations, Russian Federation”. http://www.economy.gov.ru/wps/wcm/myconnect/economylib/mert/welcome_eng/pressservice/eventschronicle/doc1229612064630.
138. ^ “National Bank of Serbia: List of banks”. http://www.nbs.rs/export/internet/english/15/linkovi_banke2.html.
139. ^ “Citibank”. http://www.citibank.com/hungary/homepage/sajtoszoba/hirek/061211_e.htm.
140. ^ Borka Tomic (2006-04-13). “Rebranding Serbia: A Hobby Shortly to Become a Full-Time Job?!”. Invest-in-Serbia. http://www.invest-in-serbia.com/modules.php?name=Content&pa=showpage&pid=66.
141. ^ “Business News :”. Balkans.com. http://www.balkans.com/open-news.php?uniquenumber=11643365. Retrieved 2010-04-28.
142. ^ “U Srbiji baš zvoni” (in Serbian). Večernje novosti. 2007-05-15. http://www.novosti.rs/code/navigate.php?Id=5&status=jedna&vest=103744&datum=2007-05-15.
143. ^ “Telekomunikacije” (in Serbian). Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia. 2007. http://webrzs.stat.gov.rs/axd/drugastrana.php?Sifra=0005&izbor=odel&tab=47.
144. ^ “U Srbiji 27 odsto gradjana koristi Internet” (in Serbian). Poslovni Magazin. 10. Maj 2007. http://www.poslovnimagazin.biz/magazin/u-srbiji-27-odsto-gradjana-koristi-internet-33-279.
145. ^ “У Србији све више рачунара?”. Politika.rs. http://www.politika.rs/rubrike/Drustvo/U-Srbiji-sve-vishe-rachunara.sr.html. Retrieved 2010-04-28.
146. ^ http://www.srbija.gov.rs/vesti/vest.php?id=59131
147. ^ https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2153rank.html?countryName=Serbia&countryCode=ri&regionCode=eu&rank=59#ri
148. ^ “Europe Internet Stats – Population Statistics”. Internetworldstats.com. 2010-04-12. http://www.internetworldstats.com/europa2.htm#rs. Retrieved 2010-04-28.
149. ^ “JAT Airways hopes to regain market dominance in Eastern Europe, CEO says –”. International Herald Tribune. 2009-03-29. http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2008/06/14/business/EU-FIN-ECO-Serbia-JAT-Airways.php. Retrieved 2010-04-28.
150. ^ “Geografski položaj” (in Serbian). City of Subotica. 2006. http://dinkogruhonjic.blogspot.com/2007/09/vozovi-u-vojvodini-bili-bri-pre-sto.html.
151. ^ “Registrovana drumska motorna i priključna vozila” (in Serbian). Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia. 2007. http://webrzs.stat.gov.rs/axd/drugastrana.php?Sifra=0005&izbor=odel&tab=46.
152. ^ Belgrade has a harbour on Sava as well
153. ^ www.arhel.com, powered by activeZ cms v2.1. “Investing in Serbia: Modern Infrastructure: Transport”. SIEPA. http://www.siepa.gov.rs/site/en/home/1/investing_in_serbia/modern_infrastructure/transport/. Retrieved 2010-04-28.
154. ^ “Davolja Varos, Rock Formation”. New7Wonders. 7 July 2007. http://www.new7wonders.com/nature/en/nominees/europe/c/DavoljaVarosRockFormation/.
155. ^ “Pilgrimage of Saint Sava”. Info Hub. http://www.infohub.com/vacation_packages/6508.html.
156. ^ “Turistički promet u Republici Srbiji u periodu januar-novembar 2007. godine” (in Serbian). National Tourism Organisation of Serbia. 2007. http://www.serbia-tourism.org/srpski/vesti2/v3_vest.php?&id=080109220053.
157. ^ “Novosti | Vecernje novosti | Ekonomija”. Novosti.rs. 2009-01-25. http://www.novosti.rs/code/navigate.php?Id=5&status=jedna&vest=136527. Retrieved 2010-04-28.
158. ^ f. Serbia. 2001. The Encyclopedia of World History
159. ^ UNESCO. Stari Ras and Sopoćani.
160. ^ UNESCO. Studenica Monastery.
161. ^ UNESCO. Medieval Monuments in Kosovo.
162. ^ UNESCO. Gamzigrad-Romuliana, Palace of Galerius.
163. ^ “Sombor: History by dates”. SOinfo.org. http://www.soinfo.org/so_istorija.php?mode=datumi&language=english.
164. ^ “Zakon o državnim i drugim praznicima u Republici Srbiji” (in Serbian). 2007-11-06. http://savetnik.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=20&Itemid=49. Retrieved 2008-03-13.
165. ^ “Yale”. Yale=. http://epi.yale.edu/Home. Retrieved 2010-02-04.
166. ^ “Vision of Humanity”. Vision of Humanity. http://www.visionofhumanity.org/gpi/home.php. Retrieved 2010-02-04.

External links
Find more about Serbia on Wikipedia’s sister projects:
Definitions from Wiktionary
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Quotations from Wikiquote
Source texts from Wikisource
Images and media from Commons
News stories from Wikinews
Learning resources from Wikiversity

* National Tourist Organization of Serbia
* Discover Serbia Serbia Travel Guide
* Serbian Government
* e-Government Portal of Serbia
* President of Serbia
* National Assembly of Serbia
* Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Serbia
* National Bank of Serbia
* Serbia Investment and Export Promotion Agency
* Statistical Office of Serbia
* Chief of State and Cabinet Members

General information

* Serbia entry at The World Factbook
* Serbia from UCB Libraries GovPubs
* Serbia at the Open Directory Project
* Wikimedia Atlas of Serbia
* Serbia travel guide from Wikitravel

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Retrieved from “http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbia”
Categories: World Heritage Sites in Serbia | Serbia | European countries | Balkans | Slavic countries | Serbo-Croatian-speaking countries | Republics | Liberal democracies | Landlocked countries | States and territories established in 2006

Flag Coat of arms
Motto: “Majulah Singapura” (Malay)
“Onward, Singapore”
Anthem: Majulah Singapura
Capital Singapore
(Downtown Core, Central)1
1°17′N 103°50′E / 1.283°N 103.833°E / 1.283; 103.833
Official language(s) English (first language)[1][2]
Malay (national)[3]
Mandarin Chinese
Tamil
Official scripts English alphabet
Malay alphabet
Simplified Chinese
Tamil script
Demonym Singaporean
Government Parliamentary republic
– President S.R. Nathan
– Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong
– Speaker of Parliament Abdullah Tarmugi
– Chief Justice Chan Sek Keong
Legislature Parliament
Formation
– Founding 29 January 1819[4]
– Self-government 3 June 1959[5]
– Independence from the United Kingdom 31 August 1963[6]
– Merger with Malaysia 16 September 1963
– Separation from Malaysia 9 August 1965
Area
– Total 710.2 km2 (187th)
274.2 sq mi
– Water (%) 1.444
Population
– 2009 estimate 4,987,600[7] (115th)
– 2000 census 4,117,700
– Density 7,022[7]/km2 (3rd)
17,275.7/sq mi
GDP (PPP) 2009 estimate
– Total $239.966 billion[8]
– Per capita $50,523[8] (4th)
GDP (nominal) 2009 estimate
– Total $177.132 billion[8]
– Per capita $37,293[8] (20th)
HDI (2007) ▲ 0.944[9] (very high) (23rd)
Currency Singapore dollar (SGD)
Time zone SST (UTC+8)
Date formats dd/mm/yyyy
Drives on the left
Internet TLD .sg
Calling code +65
1 Singapore is a city-state.
2 02 from Malaysia.

Singapore, officially the Republic of Singapore, is an island country off the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, 137 kilometres (85 mi) north of the equator, in the Southeast Asian region of the Asian continent. It is separated from Malaysia by the Straits of Johor to its north, and from Indonesia’s Riau Islands by the Singapore Strait to its south. A city-state, Singapore is the world’s fourth leading financial centre[10] and a cosmopolitan world city, playing a key role in international trade and finance.

Singapore has a diverse population of 5 million people made up of Chinese, Malays, Indians, Caucasians, and Asians (of various descent).[11] It has the sixth-highest percentage of foreigners in the world (42%), who make up 50% of the service sector.[12][13] The country is the second most densely populated in the world after Monaco.[14] A.T. Kearney names Singapore as the most globalised country in the world in its Globalization Index.[15]

Even before independence in 1965, Singapore was one of the richest states in East Asia due to its strategic location as a port. Its GDP per capita in 1965 was $511, the third highest in East Asia after Japan and Hong Kong.[16] After independence, foreign direct investment and a state-led drive for industrialization based on plans by former Deputy Prime Minister Dr. Goh Keng Swee created a modern economy focused on industry, education and urban planning.[17]

Singapore is the fourth wealthiest country in the world in terms of GDP (PPP) per capita, and the twentieth wealthiest in terms of GDP (nominal) per capita. Despite Singapore’s small size, it has the world’s ninth largest foreign reserves.[18][19] The Economist Intelligence Unit in its “Quality-Of-Life Index” ranks Singapore as having the best quality of life in Asia and eleventh overall in the world.[20] Today, the port of Singapore continues to be among the top five busiest ports in the world.[21] The Singapore Armed Forces are the most technologically advanced and well-equipped in the region.[22][23]
Contents
[hide]

* 1 Etymology
* 2 History
o 2.1 Pre-19th century
o 2.2 British colonial rule
o 2.3 World War II and post-war period
o 2.4 Independence (since 1965)
* 3 Government and politics
* 4 Geography
o 4.1 Climate
* 5 Economy
o 5.1 Tourism
o 5.2 Currency
* 6 Foreign relations
* 7 Military
* 8 Demographics
o 8.1 Population
o 8.2 Religion
o 8.3 Education
o 8.4 Languages
* 9 Culture
o 9.1 Cuisine
o 9.2 Media
o 9.3 Sport and recreation
* 10 Transport
o 10.1 Ports and aviation
o 10.2 Domestic
* 11 See also
* 12 References
* 13 Bibliography
* 14 External links

Etymology
Main article: Names of Singapore

The English name of Singapore is derived from the Malay name Singapura (Sanskrit सिंहपुर “Lion City”). Today it is sometimes referred to as the Lion City. Studies indicate that lions probably never lived there; the beast seen by Sang Nila Utama, founder of Singapore, who gave it the Malay name of Singapura meaning Lion City, was most likely a tiger.[24][25]
History
Main article: History of Singapore
Pre-19th century
Main article: Early history of Singapore
Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, early founder of Singapore.

The first records of settlement in Singapore are from the 2nd century AD.[26] The island was an outpost of the Sumatran Srivijaya empire and originally had the Javanese name Temasek (‘sea town’). Between the 16th and early 19th centuries, Singapore was part of the Sultanate of Johor. In 1613, Portuguese raiders burnt down the settlement at the mouth of Singapore River and the island sank into obscurity for the next two centuries.
British colonial rule
Main article: Founding of modern Singapore
See also: Singapore in the Straits Settlements

On 29 January 1819, Thomas Stamford Raffles landed on the main island in Singapore. Spotting its potential as a strategic trading post for Southeast Asia, Raffles signed a treaty with Sultan Hussein Shah on behalf of the British East India Company on 6 February 1819 to develop the southern part of Singapore as a British trading post and settlement.[27]

Until 1824, Singapore was still a territory controlled by a Malay Sultan. It officially became a British colony on 2 August 1824 when John Crawfurd, the second resident of Singapore, officially made the whole island a British possession by signing a treaty with Sultan Hussein Shah in which the Sultan and the Temmenggong handed it over to the British East India Company. In 1826 it became part of the Straits Settlements, a British colony. By 1869, 100,000 people lived on the island.[27]
World War II and post-war period
Main article: Japanese occupation of Singapore
The Japanese Army marching in downtown Singapore.

During World War II, the Imperial Japanese Army invaded Malaya, culminating in the Battle of Singapore. The British were defeated in six days, and surrendered the supposedly impregnable fortress to General Tomoyuki Yamashita on 15 February 1942. The surrender was described by British Prime Minister Winston Churchill as “the worst disaster and largest capitulation in British history”.[28] The Sook Ching massacre of ethnic Chinese after the fall of Singapore claimed between 5,000 and 25,000 lives.[29] The Japanese renamed Singapore Shōnantō (昭南島?), from Japanese “Shōwa no jidai ni eta minami no shima” (“昭和の時代に得た南の島”?), or “southern island obtained in the age of Shōwa”, and occupied it until the British repossessed the island on 12 September 1945, a month after the Japanese surrender.

Following the war, the British government allowed Singapore to hold its first general election, in 1955, which was won by a pro-independence candidate, David Marshall, leader of the Labour Front party, who became Chief Minister.

Demanding complete self-rule, Marshall led a delegation to London, but was refused by the British. He resigned upon return, and was replaced by Lim Yew Hock, whose policies then convinced the British. Singapore was granted full internal self-government with its own prime minister and Cabinet overseeing all matters of government except defence and foreign affairs.

Elections were held on 30 May 1959 with the People’s Action Party winning a landslide victory. Singapore eventually became a self-governing state within the Commonwealth on 3 June 1959, and Lee Kuan Yew was sworn in as the first prime minister.[30] Then Governor of Singapore, Sir William Allmond Codrington Goode, served as the first Yang di-Pertuan Negara until 3 December 1959. He was succeeded by Yusof bin Ishak, later first President of Singapore.

Singapore declared independence from Britain unilaterally in August 1963,[31] before joining the Federation of Malaysia in September along with Malaya, Sabah and Sarawak as the result of the 1962 Merger Referendum of Singapore. Singapore was expelled from the Federation two years after heated ideological conflict between the state’s PAP government and the federal government in Kuala Lumpur.
Independence (since 1965)
Main article: History of the Republic of Singapore

Singapore officially gained sovereignty on 9 August 1965.[6] Yusof bin Ishak was sworn in as President, and Lee Kuan Yew became the first prime minister of the Republic of Singapore.

In 1990, Goh Chok Tong succeeded Lee as Prime Minister. During his tenure, the country faced the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis, the 2003 SARS outbreak, and terrorist threats posed by Jemaah Islamiyah. In 2004, Lee Hsien Loong, eldest son of Lee Kuan Yew, became the third prime minister.[32] Among his more notable decisions is the plan to open casinos to attract tourism.[33]
Government and politics
Main articles: Government of Singapore and Politics of Singapore
See also: Law of Singapore
Singapore’s Parliament House.

Singapore is a parliamentary republic with a Westminster system of unicameral parliamentary government representing different constituencies. The Constitution of Singapore establishes representative democracy as the nation’s political system.[34] The People’s Action Party (PAP) dominates the political process and has won control of Parliament in every election since self-government in 1959.[35] Freedom House ranks Singapore as “not free” in its “Freedom in the World report” and The Economist ranks Singapore as a “hybrid regime”, the third rank out of four, in its “Democracy Index”.

The bulk of the executive powers rests with the cabinet, headed by the Prime Minister. The office of President of Singapore, historically a ceremonial one, was granted some veto powers in 1991 for a few key decisions such as the use of the national reserves and the appointment of judicial positions. Although the position is to be elected by popular vote, only the 1993 election has been contested to date. The legislative branch of government is the Parliament.[36]

Parliamentary elections in Singapore are plurality-based for group representation constituencies since the Parliamentary Elections Act was modified in 1991.[37]

Members of Parliament (MPs) consist of elected, non-constituency and nominated Members. The majority of MPs are elected to Parliament at a General Election on a first-past-the-post basis and represent either Single Member or Group Representation Constituencies (GRCs).[38]

Singapore has consistently been rated as one of the least corrupt countries in the world by Transparency International.[39][40]

Although Singapore’s laws are inherited from English and British Indian laws, and include many elements of English common law, in some respects they have departed from that tradition since independence. For example, trial by jury has been abolished.

Singapore has laws and penalties that include judicial corporal punishment in the form of caning for offenses such as rape, violence, rioting, drug use, vandalism of property, and some immigration offences.[41][42] Singapore also imposes a mandatory death penalty for first-degree murder and drug-trafficking.[43] Amnesty International has estimated that Singapore has “possibly the highest execution rate in the world relative to its population”.[44] The government argues that Singapore has the sovereign right to determine its own judicial system and impose what it sees as an appropriate punishment.[45]

A Political and Economic Risk Consultancy (PERC) survey in September 2008 reported that Hong Kong and Singapore have the best judicial systems in Asia, with Indonesia and Vietnam the worst: Hong Kong’s judicial system scored 1.45 on the scale (zero representing the best performance and 10 the worst); Singapore with a grade of 1.92, followed by Japan (3.50), South Korea (4.62), Taiwan (4.93), the Philippines (6.10), Malaysia (6.47), India (6.50), Thailand (7.00), China (7.25), Vietnam (8.10) and Indonesia (8.26).[46][47]
Geography
Main article: Geography and climate of Singapore

Singapore consists of 63 islands, including mainland Singapore. There are two man-made connections to Johor, Malaysia: the Johor-Singapore Causeway in the north, and the Tuas Second Link in the west. Jurong Island, Pulau Tekong, Pulau Ubin and Sentosa are the largest of Singapore’s many smaller islands. The highest natural point is Bukit Timah Hill at 166 m (545 ft).[48]

Singapore has on-going land reclamation projects with earth obtained from its own hills, the seabed, and neighbouring countries. As a result, Singapore’s land area grew from 581.5 km2 (224.5 sq mi) in the 1960s to 704 km2 (271.8 sq mi) today, and may grow by another 100 km2 (38.6 sq mi) by 2030.[49] The projects sometimes involve some of the smaller islands being merged together through land reclamation in order to form larger, more functional islands, as in the case of Jurong Island.[citation needed]
Climate
Singapore Botanic Gardens, a 67.3-hectare (166-acre) botanical garden in Singapore that includes the National Orchid Garden, with more than 3,000 species of orchids

Under the Köppen climate classification system, Singapore has a tropical rainforest climate with no distinctive seasons, uniform temperature and pressure, high humidity, and abundant rainfall. Temperatures range from 22 to 34 °C (71.6 to 93.2 °F). On average, the relative humidity is around 90% in the morning and 60% in the afternoon. During prolonged heavy rain, relative humidity often reaches 100%.[50] The lowest and highest temperatures recorded in its maritime history are 19.4 °C (66.9 °F) and 35.8 °C (96.4 °F).

May and June are the hottest months, while November and December make up the wetter monsoon season.[51] From August to October, there is often haze, sometimes severe enough to prompt public health warnings, due to bush fires in neighbouring Indonesia. Singapore does not observe daylight saving time or a summer time zone change. The length of the day is nearly constant year round due to the country’s position near the equator.[citation needed]

About 23% of Singapore’s land area consists of forest and nature reserves.[52] Urbanisation has eliminated many areas of former primary rainforest, with the only remaining area of primary rainforest being Bukit Timah Nature Reserve. A variety of parks are maintained, such as the Singapore Botanic Gardens.[citation needed]

[hide]Climate data for Singapore (Singapore Airport)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Average high °C (°F) 29.9
(85.8) 31.0
(87.8) 31.4
(88.5) 31.7
(89.1) 31.6
(88.9) 31.2
(88.2) 30.8
(87.4) 30.8
(87.4) 30.7
(87.3) 31.1
(88) 30.5
(86.9) 29.6
(85.3) 30.9
(87.6)
Average low °C (°F) 23.1
(73.6) 23.5
(74.3) 23.9
(75) 24.3
(75.7) 24.6
(76.3) 24.5
(76.1) 24.2
(75.6) 24.2
(75.6) 23.9
(75) 23.9
(75) 23.6
(74.5) 23.3
(73.9) 23.9
(75)
Precipitation mm (inches) 198
(7.8) 154
(6.06) 171
(6.73) 141
(5.55) 158
(6.22) 140
(5.51) 145
(5.71) 143
(5.63) 177
(6.97) 167
(6.57) 252
(9.92) 304
(11.97) 2,150
(84.65)
Avg. rainy days 12 10 13 14 14 13 14 13 14 15 19 19 170
Sunshine hours 173.6 183.6 192.2 174 179.8 177 189.1 179.8 156 155 129 133.3 2,022.4
Source: Hong Kong Observatory [53]
Economy
Main article: Economy of Singapore
The port of Singapore, the world’s busiest, with the skyline of Singapore in the background
See also: International trade agreements of Singapore

Singapore has a highly developed market-based economy, which has historically revolved around extended entrepôt trade. Along with Hong Kong, South Korea and Taiwan, Singapore is one of the Four Asian Tigers. The economy depends heavily on exports and refining imported goods, especially in manufacturing, which constituted 26% of Singapore’s GDP in 2005[54] and includes significant electronics, petroleum refining, chemicals, mechanical engineering and biomedical sciences sectors. In 2006 Singapore produced about 10% of the world’s foundry wafer output.[55] Singapore has one of the busiest ports in the world and is the world’s fourth largest foreign exchange trading centre after London, New York and Tokyo.[56] The World Bank ranks Singapore as the world’s top logistics hub.[57]

Singapore’s economy has been ranked amongst the world’s ten most open,[58] competitive[59] and innovative.[60][61] Rated as the most business-friendly economy in the world,[62][63] Singapore sees hundreds of thousands of foreign expatriates working in multi-national corporations. In addition, it also employs hundreds of thousands of foreign manual workers.
Alternative view of Singapore Central Business District (CBD)

As a result of a global recession and a slump in the technology sector, the country’s GDP contracted 2.2% in 2001. The Economic Review Committee (ERC) was set up in December 2001, and recommended several policy changes with a view to revitalising the economy. Singapore has since recovered from the recession, largely due to improvements in the world economy; the economy grew by 8.3% in 2004, 6.4% in 2005[64] and 7.9% in 2006.[65]

Singapore introduced a Goods and Services Tax (GST) with an initial rate of 3% on 1 April 1994 substantially increasing government revenue by S$1.6 billion (US$1b, €800m) and stabilising government finances.[66] The taxable GST was increased to 4% in 2003, to 5% in 2004, and to 7% on 1 July 2007.[67]
Tourism
Main article: Tourism in Singapore
The Merlion, a national symbol of Singapore

Singapore is a popular travel destination, contributing to the importance of its tourism industry. About 7.8 million tourists visited in 2006.[68] Total visitor arrivals were 10.2 million in 2007.[69] To attract more tourists, the government has decided to legalise gambling and to allow two casino resorts (euphemistically called Integrated Resorts) to be developed at Marina South and Sentosa in 2005.[70] To compete with regional rivals like Bangkok, Hong Kong, Tokyo and Shanghai, the government has announced that the city area would be transformed into a more exciting place by lighting up the civic and commercial buildings.[71] Food has also been promoted as an attraction for tourists, with the Singapore Food Festival held every July to celebrate Singapore’s cuisine.

Singapore is promoting itself as a medical tourism hub: about 200,000 foreigners seek medical care in the country each year, and Singapore medical services aim to serve one million foreign patients annually by 2012 and generate USD 3 billion in revenue.[72] The government states that this could create some 13,000 new jobs within the health industries.
Currency
Main article: Singapore dollar

The currency of Singapore is the Singapore dollar, represented by the symbol S$ or the ISO abbreviation SGD. The central bank is the Monetary Authority of Singapore, responsible for issuing currency. Singapore established the Board of Commissioners of Currency in 1967[73] and issued its first coins and notes.[74] The Singapore dollar was exchangeable at par with the Malaysian ringgit until 1973.[74] Interchangeability with the Brunei dollar is still maintained.[74][75] On 27 June 2007, to commemorate 40 years of currency agreement with Brunei, a commemorative S$20 note was launched; the back is identical to the Bruneian $20 note launched concurrently.[75]
Foreign relations
Then Senior Minister Lee Kuan Yew and Ambassador to the U.S. Chan Heng Chee meet with Secretary of Defense William S. Cohen during Lee’s visit in 2000.
Main article: Foreign relations of Singapore

Singapore maintains diplomatic relations with 175 countries,[76] although it does not maintain a high commission or embassy in many of those countries. It is a member of the United Nations, the Commonwealth, ASEAN and the Non-Aligned Movement. For obvious geographical reasons, relations with Malaysia and Indonesia are most important but the domestic politics of the three countries often threatens their relations.

Singapore also enjoys good relations with many European nations, including France, Germany and the United Kingdom, the latter sharing ties via the Five Power Defence Arrangements (FPDA) along with Malaysia, Australia and New Zealand. Good relations are also maintained with the United States, a country perceived as a stabilising force in the region to counterbalance the regional powers.

Singapore supports the concept of Southeast Asian regionalism and plays an active role in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), of which it is a founding member. It is also a member of the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum, which has its Secretariat in Singapore. Singapore also has close relations with fellow ASEAN nation Brunei and maintains Army training facilities there.
Military
Main article: Singapore Armed Forces
See also: Ministry of Defence (Singapore) and Conscription in Singapore
RSS Formidable
A Singapore Air Force F-15SG

Despite its small size, Singapore has one of the most advanced military forces in East Asia. The Ministry of Defence (MINDEF), currently headed by Minister Teo Chee Hean, oversees the Singapore Army, the Republic of Singapore Navy, and the Republic of Singapore Air Force, collectively known as the Singapore Armed Forces, along with volunteer private companies in supporting roles. The Chief of Defence Forces is Major-General Neo Kian Hong.

The armed forces serve primarily as a deterrent against potential aggressors and also provide humanitarian assistance to other countries. Singapore has mutual defence pacts with several countries, most notably the Five Power Defence Arrangements. There is an extensive overseas network of training grounds in the United States, Australia, Republic of China (Taiwan), New Zealand, France, Thailand, Brunei, India and South Africa. Since 1980, the concept and strategy of “Total Defence” has been adopted in all aspects of security, aimed at strengthening Singapore against all kinds of threats.

Singapore legislation requires every able-bodied male Singapore citizen and permanent resident to undertake National Service for a minimum of two years upon reaching 18 years of age or completion of his studies (whichever comes first), with exemption on medical or other grounds. After serving for two years, every male is considered operationally ready, and is liable for reservist national service to the age of 40 (50 for commissioned officers). Those medically fit must also take the Individual Physical Proficiency Test (IPPT) yearly as part of their training program. More than 350,000 men serve as operationally ready servicemen assigned to reservist combat units, and another 72,500 men form the full-time national service and regular corps.

The recent rise in unconventional warfare and terrorism has cast increasing emphasis on non-military aspects of defence. The Gurkha Contingent, part of the Singapore Police Force, is also a counter-terrorist force. In 1991, the hijacking of Singapore Airlines Flight 117 ended in the storming of the aircraft by Singapore Special Operations Force and the subsequent deaths of all four hijackers without injury to either passengers or SOF personnel. A concern is Jemaah Islamiyah, a militant Islamic group whose plan to attack the Australian High Commission was ultimately foiled in 2001.

Singapore’s defence resources have been used in international humanitarian aid missions, including United Nations peacekeeping assignments involved in 11 different countries.[77] In September 2005, the Republic of Singapore Air Force (RSAF) sent three CH-47 Chinook helicopters to Louisiana to assist in relief operations for Hurricane Katrina. In the aftermath of the 2004 Asian Tsunami the SAF deployed tanks and helicopters to aid relief operations to the countries affected.
Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Singapore
Population

The population of Singapore has the sixth-highest percentage of foreigners globally. 42% of the population in Singapore are foreigners and foreigners make up 50% of the service sector.[12][13] Most foreigners come from China, Malaysia, Philippines, North America, Middle East, Europe, Australia and India. The country is also the second most densely populated in the world after Monaco.[14] According to government statistics, the population of Singapore as of 2009 was 4.99 million, of whom 3.73 million were Singaporean citizens and permanent residents (termed “Singapore Residents”). There were 3.2 million citizens in 2009.[78] Various Chinese linguistic groups formed 74.2% of Singapore’s residents, Malays 13.4%, Indians 9.2%, while Eurasians, Arabs and other groups formed 3.2%.

In 2008, the total fertility rate was only 1.28 children per woman, the 3rd lowest in the world and well below the 2.10 needed to replace the population.[78][79] In 2008, 39,826 babies were born, compared to around 37,600 in 2005. This number, however, is not sufficient to maintain the population’s growth. To overcome this problem, the government is encouraging foreigners to immigrate to Singapore. These large numbers of immigrants have kept Singapore’s population from declining.[80]

According to latest 2010 statistics, Singapore’s resident total fertility rate (TFR) reached a level of 1.22 in 2009. The Chinese TFR was (1.08), followed by Indians (1.14) and Malays (1.82). Malay fertility-rate is ~70% higher than chinese and Indians.[81]
Religion
Main article: Religion in Singapore
Religion in Singapore
religion percent
Buddhism
 
42.5%
Islam
 
14.9%
No religion
 
14.8%
Christianity
 
14.6%
Taoism
 
8.5%
Hinduism
 
4%
Others
 
0.6%

Education
Main article: Education in Singapore
The Administrative Building of Nanyang Technological University, one of three local univerisities in Singapore

English is the medium of instruction in all Singaporean schools. The educational system in Singapore features non-compulsory kindergarten for three years, followed by six years of primary education leading up to the Primary School Leaving Examination (PSLE). Four to five years of secondary education follow, leading up to the Singapore-Cambridge GCE ‘N’ Level or Singapore-Cambridge GCE ‘O’ Level examinations that assess academic achievement and determine the kind of post-secondary education routes they can pursue.

Junior colleges and centralised institutes provide a two- or three-year pre-university education route. An alternative, the Integrated Programme, lets the more academically inclined skip the ‘O’ Level examination and proceed straight to obtain pre-university qualifications such as the GCE ‘A’ Level certificate, the International Baccalaureate diploma, or other equivalent academic accreditations. Polytechnics offer courses leading up to at least a diploma for students, while the other tertiary institutions offer various bachelor’s, master’s or doctoral degrees, other higher diplomas, and associate degree courses.

Other institutes include the National Institute of Education (NIE), a teaching college to train teachers, various management institutes, and vocational education institutes such as the Institute of Technical Education (ITE).

There are three Autonomous Universities in Singapore; the National University of Singapore, Nanyang Technological University and Singapore Management University. A fourth public university, the Singapore University of Technology and Design will open in 2011, as the government looks to provide higher education for 30% of each cohort.[82] There is another category (Private Universities – Comprehensive), SIM University (UniSIM) provides university education to working professionals and adult learners.[83] There are also five polytechnics (Singapore Polytechnic, Ngee Ann Polytechnic, Temasek Polytechnic, Nanyang Polytechnic and Republic Polytechnic). Unlike similarly named institutions in many other countries, polytechnics in Singapore do not award degrees.
Languages
Main article: Languages of Singapore
See also: Singlish

The Singapore government recognises four official languages: English, Malay, Chinese (Mandarin), and Tamil.[84]

English is the most dominant language in Singapore,[1][2] unlike neighbouring countries Malaysia and Indonesia, where Malay is the dominant language.[85] The forms of English spoken in Singapore range from Standard English to an English-based creole known as Singlish. Amongst Singaporeans, English has the largest number of speakers. This is followed by Mandarin Chinese, Malay and Tamil.[86] The English used is primarily based on British English.[87] For example, the word “tyre” is used over “tire”.[88] However, certain naming conventions in Singapore are a mixture of American and British spellings. For instance, local media have “sports pages” (“sport” in British English) and “soccer coverage”.[89] The use of English became widespread in Singapore after 1965 when it was implemented as a first language medium in the education system.[90] At school, children are required to learn English and one of the three other official languages as a mother tongue.[91]

Malay is the national language for symbolic and historical reasons,[3] which is generally spoken by Singapore’s Malay community. The Malay language is used in the national anthem “Majulah Singapura”[92] and printing of coins. However, around 85% of Singaporeans do not speak Malay.[86]

Mandarin (Chinese) is also spoken widely in Singapore. Mandarin has spread largely as a result of government-sponsored public campaigns and efforts to support its adoption and use over other Chinese languages.[93]

Tamil is spoken by about 60% of Singapore’s Indian community or 5% of all Singaporeans. Indian languages such as Malayalam and Hindi are also spoken by a small group of Singaporean Indians in Singapore.
Culture
Main article: Culture of Singapore

Due to its diverse population and immigrant background, Singaporean culture has often been described as a mix of cultures – British, Malay, Chinese, Indian and Peranakan. Foreigners also make up 42% of the population in Singapore[12][13] and they play an important role in influencing Singaporean culture.
Cuisine
Main article: Cuisine of Singapore

Dining, along with shopping, is said to be the country’s national pastime.[94] Singaporean cuisine is an example of the country’s diversity and cultural diffusion; with significant influences from British, Chinese, Indian, Malay, Tamil cuisine, and Indonesian cuisine. Typical Singaporean food includes the satay, nasi lemak, fish and chips and the famed Hainanese chicken rice.[citation needed]
Media
Main article: Media of Singapore
The Straits Times, the most circulated newspaper in the country

MediaCorp, the state-owned media corporation, operates all seven free-to-air terrestrial local television channels, as well as 14 radio channels. Radio and television stations are all government-owned entities. The radio stations are itself mainly operated by MediaCorp with the exception of four stations, which are operated by SAFRA Radio and SPH UnionWorks respectively. The Cable and IPTV Pay-TV Service are owned by StarHub and SingTel. Private ownership of satellite dish receivers capable of viewing uncensored televised content from abroad is illegal.

The print media of Singapore includes a total of 16 newspapers in active circulation, and several magazines. Daily newspapers are published in English, Chinese, Malay and Tamil, with the print media being dominated by Singapore Press Holdings (SPH), the government-linked publisher of the flagship English language daily, The Straits Times. SPH publishes almost all daily newspapers, including a free bilingual daily, My Paper – which claims to be the world’s first, with equal coverage in both English and Chinese Most of these papers have parallel online versions, including The Straits Times, the Business Times, and Today – a free English-language tabloid published by MediaCorp.

Since the 1990s, the government has been striving to promote Singapore as a centre for arts and culture, in particular the performing arts, and to transform the country into a cosmopolitan ‘gateway between the East and West’.[95] The highlight of these efforts was the construction of Esplanade, a top-class centre for performing arts that opened on 12 October 2002.[96] Also, the Singapore Arts Festival is an annual event organised by the National Arts Council. The stand-up comedy scene has also been growing, including a weekly open mic.[97] Singapore hosted the 2009 Genee International Ballet Competition, a prestigious classical ballet competition promoted by the Royal Academy of Dance, an international dance examination board based in London, UK.[98]
Sport and recreation
Main article: Sports in Singapore

Favourite Singaporean sports include outdoor sports such as football, basketball, swimming and various indoor sports such as table tennis and badminton.

Most Singaporeans live in public residential areas with amenities such as swimming pools, outdoor basketball courts and indoor sport complexes nearby. As might be expected on an island, water sports are popular, including sailing, kayaking and water skiing. Scuba diving is another recreation, particularly around the southern island of Pulau Hantu which is known for its rich coral reefs.
Closing ceremony for the use of the National Stadium
National Stadium of Singapore

Singaporean sportsmen have performed in regional as well as international competitions in sports such as table tennis, badminton, bowling, sailing, silat, swimming and water polo. Athletes such as Fandi Ahmad, Ang Peng Siong, Li Jiawei and Ronald Susilo have become household names in the country.

The Singapore Slingers joined the Australian National Basketball League in 2006, which they left in 2008. They are one of the inaugural teams that began competition in the ASEAN Basketball League in October 2009.

Beginning in 2008, Singapore started hosting a round of the Formula One World Championship. The race was staged at the Marina Bay Street Circuit in the Marina Bay area and became the first night race on the F1 circuit[99] and the first street circuit in Asia.[100]

On 21 February 2008 the International Olympic Committee announced[101] that Singapore won the bid to host the inaugural 2010 Summer Youth Olympics. Singapore beat Moscow in the final by 53 votes to 44.[102]
Transport
Main article: Transport in Singapore
Ports and aviation
The Port of Singapore with Sentosa island in the background

Singapore is a major international transportation hub in Asia, positioned on many sea and air trade routes.

The Port of Singapore, managed by port operators PSA International and Jurong Port, was the world’s second busiest port in 2005 in terms of shipping tonnage handled, at 1.15 billion gross tons, and in terms of containerised traffic, at 23.2 million twenty-foot equivalent units (TEUs). It is also the world’s second busiest in terms of cargo tonnage, coming behind Shanghai with 423 million tons handled. In addition, the Port is the world’s busiest for transshipment traffic and the world’s biggest ship refuelling centre.[103]
A C751B train at Eunos MRT Station on the Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) system, one of three heavy rail passenger transport lines in Singapore

Singapore is an aviation hub for the Southeast Asian region and a stopover on the Kangaroo route between Australasia and Europe. Singapore Changi Airport has a network of 81 airlines connecting Singapore to 185 cities in 58 countries. It has been rated as one of the best international airports by international travel magazines, including being rated as the world’s best airport for the first time in 2006 by Skytrax.[104]

The airport currently has three passenger terminals. There is also a budget terminal, which serves budget carrier Tiger Airways and Cebu Pacific. The national carrier is Singapore Airlines (SIA). The government is moving towards privatising Changi airport.
Domestic

The domestic transport infrastructure has a well-connected island-wide road transport system which includes a network of expressways. The public road system is served by the nation’s bus service and a number of licensed taxi-operating companies. The public bus transport has been the subject of criticism by Singaporeans[citation needed], the majority of whom are dependent on it for their daily commuting.

Since 1987, the heavy rail passenger Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) metro system has been in operation. The MRT system has been further augmented by the Light Rail Transit (LRT) light rail system, and increases accessibility to housing estates. Established in 2001, the EZ-Link system allows contactless smartcards to serve as stored value tickets for use in the public transport systems in Singapore.
See also
Flag of Singapore.svg Singapore portal

* Index of Singapore-related articles
* International rankings of Singapore
* Merlion
* Outline of Singapore

References

1. ^ a b Clarissa Oon; Goh Chin Lian (14 August 2009). “English to remain master language”. The Straits Times (Singapore). http://www.pmo.gov.sg/News/Transcripts/Minister+Mentor/English+to+remain+master+language.htm.
2. ^ a b Singapore Government (13 August 2009). “Speech by Minister Mentor Lee Kuan Yew”. Press release. http://www.news.gov.sg/public/sgpc/en/media_releases/agencies/mica/speech/S-20090814-1.html.
3. ^ a b “Republic of Singapore Independence Act”. http://statutes.agc.gov.sg/non_version/cgi-bin/cgi_getdata.pl?actno=1997-REVED-RSI&doctitle=REPUBLIC%20OF%20SINGAPORE%20INDEPENDENCE%20ACT%0A&date=latest&method=whole. Retrieved 4 January 2009.
4. ^ “Singapore: History”. Asian Studies Network Information Center. http://inic.utexas.edu/asnic/countries/singapore/Singapore-History.html. Retrieved 2 November 2007.
5. ^ Hoe Yeen Nie (2 June 2009). “State of Singapore came into being 50 years ago on 3 June”. Channel News Asia (Singapore). http://www.channelnewsasia.com/stories/singaporelocalnews/view/433440/1/.html.
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8. ^ a b c d “Singapore”. International Monetary Fund. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2010/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2007&ey=2010&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=576&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=43&pr.y=11. Retrieved 21 April 2010.
9. ^ “Human Development Report 2009. Human development index trends: Table G”. United Nations. http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2009_EN_Complete.pdf. Retrieved 5 October 2009.
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13. ^ a b c “Population Trends 2009″, Singapore Department of Statistics. ISSN 1793-2424
14. ^ a b List of countries and dependencies by population density
15. ^ “Measuring Globalization”, Foreign Policy, no date.
16. ^ GDP (per capita) (1968) by country, NationMaster.com.
17. ^ Murphy, Craig (2006). The United Nations Development Programme: A Better Way?. Cambridge University Press. pp. 101. ISBN 9780521864695.
18. ^ Official Foreign Reserves, Monetary Authority of Singapore.
19. ^ Top 10 countries with Largest Foreign Exchange Reserves, Shine, 8 September 2009.
20. ^ “The Economist Intelligence Unit’s quality-of-life index”, 2005.
21. ^ Kelly, Rachel (10 January 2008). “Singapore retains busiest world port title”. Channel News Asia (Singapore). http://www.channelnewsasia.com/stories/singaporebusinessnews/view/321856/1/.html.
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58. ^ http://www.straitstimes.com/BreakingNews/Singapore/Story/STIStory_484164.html
59. ^ http://www.weforum.org/pdf/GCR09/GCR20092010fullrankings.pdf
60. ^ http://eurocham.org.sg/index.php?option=com_eurochammobile&view=news&id=289&template=ccmobile
61. ^ http://www.channelnewsasia.com/stories/afp_asiapacific_business/view/1041699/1/.html
62. ^ Wong Choon Mei (6 September 2006). “Singapore the most business-friendly economy in the world: World Bank”. Channel NewsAsia (Singapore). http://www.channelnewsasia.com/stories/singaporebusinessnews/view/228852/1/.html. Retrieved 22 April 2010. “According to a World Bank-IFC report, Singapore beats previous winner New Zealand for the top spot in the 2005/2006 rankings while the United States came in third”
63. ^ “Singapore top paradise for business: World Bank”. AsiaOne. Agence France Presse (Singapore). 26 September 2007. http://business.asiaone.com/Business/News/SME%2BCentral/Story/A1Story20070926-27084.html. Retrieved 22 April 2010. “For the second year running, Singapore tops the aggregate rankings on the ease of doing business in 2006 to 2007, the World Bank said in releasing its ‘Doing Business 2008′ report.”
64. ^ “Performance of the Singapore Economy in 2005, Ministry of Trade and Industry” (PDF). Archived from the original on 23 August 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20060823185543/http://app.mti.gov.sg/data/article/1962/doc/ESS_2005Ann_+PR.pdf. Retrieved 22 April 2010.
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66. ^ “FY 1996 Budget, Revenue And Tax Changes”. Ministry of Finance. http://www.mof.gov.sg/budget_1996/revenue.html. Retrieved 1 May 2006.
67. ^ “GST rate to rise to 7% from 1 July”. Channel NewsAsia (Singapore). 15 February 2007. http://www.channelnewsasia.com/stories/specialreport/news/258757_26/1/.html. Retrieved 22 April 2010.
68. ^ “Record Year As Tourism Exceeds 2006 Targets With S$12.4 billion Tourism Receipts And 9.7 Million Visitor Arrivals”. Singapore Tourism Board. http://app.stb.com.sg/asp/new/new03a.asp?id=6243. Retrieved 22 April 2010.
69. ^ Year Book of Statistics, Singapore. Singapore Tourism Board.
70. ^ Ministry of Trade and Industry (Singapore). “Proposal to develop Integrated Resorts – Ministerial Statement by Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong on 18 April 2005″ (PDF). Press release. http://app.mti.gov.sg/data/pages/606/doc/Ministerial%20Statement%20-%20PM%2018apr05.pdf. Retrieved 22 April 2010.
71. ^ “URA News Releases: Let Bright Ideas Light Up Singapore”. Urban Renewal Authority. http://www.ura.gov.sg/pr/text/forum06_09.html. Retrieved 22 April 2010.
72. ^ Dogra, Sapna. “Medical tourism boom takes Singapore by storm”. India: Express Healthcare Management. http://www.expresshealthcaremgmt.com/20050731/medicaltourism01.shtml. Retrieved 22 April 2010.
73. ^ Low Siang Kok, Director (Quality), Board of Commissioners of Currency, Singapore (22 June 2002). “Chapter 6: Singapore Electronic Legal Tender (SELT) – A Proposed Concept” (PDF). The Future of Money / Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Paris: OECD Publications. pp. 147. ISBN 92-64-19672-2. http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/40/31/35391062.pdf. Retrieved 28 December 2007. “The Board of Commissioners of Currency, Singapore (BCCS) was established on 7 April 1967 by the enactment of the Currency Act (Chapter 69). It has the sole right to issue currency notes and coins as legal tender in Singapore.”
74. ^ a b c Monetary Authority of Singapore (9 April 2007). “The Currency History of Singapore”. Press release. http://www.mas.gov.sg/currency/currency_info/Heritage_Collection.html. Retrieved 22 April 2010. “On 12 June 1967, the currency union which had been operating for 29 years came to an end, and the three participating countries, Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei each issued its own currency.”
75. ^ a b Monetary Authority of Singapore (27 June 2007). “Commemorating the 40th Anniversary the Currency Interchangeability Agreement”. Press release. http://www.mas.gov.sg/news_room/press_releases/2007/Joint_Press_Release_by_the_MOF_Brunei_Darussalam_and_MAS.html. Retrieved 22 April 2010. “Brunei Darussalam and Singapore today celebrate the 40th Anniversary of the Currency Interchangeability Agreement”
76. ^ “Singapore Missions Worldwide”. Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Singapore. 31 March 2007. Archived from the original on 21 August 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070821210744/http://notesapp.internet.gov.sg/mfa/dipcon/dipcon.nsf/SMAgent.
77. ^ “About Us: Defence Pllicy”. Ministry of Defence. http://www.mindef.gov.sg/imindef/about_us/defence_policy.html. Retrieved 1 May 2006.
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80. ^ Julia Ng (7 February 2007). “Singapore’s birth trend outlook remains dismal”. Channel NewsAsia. http://www.channelnewsasia.com/stories/singaporelocalnews/view/257208/1/.html. Retrieved 22 April 2010.
81. ^ “Singapore releases 2010 population in Brief Report”. govmonitor.com (Atlanta, USA). 22 June 2010. http://www.thegovmonitor.com/world_news/asia/singapore-releases-2010-population-in-brief-report-34158.html. Retrieved 23 June 2010.
82. ^ Hoe Yeen Nie (18 December 2007). “More tertiary options in 2008 and beyond”. Channel News Asia. http://www.channelnewsasia.com/stories/singaporelocalnews/view/318031/1/.html. Retrieved 22 April 2010.
83. ^ Post-Secondary Education in Singapore. Ministry of Education.
84. ^ http://statutes.agc.gov.sg/non_version/cgi-bin/cgi_getdata.pl?actno=1997-REVED-RSI&doctitle=REPUBLIC%20OF%20SINGAPORE%20INDEPENDENCE%20ACT%0A&date=latest&method=whole
85. ^ http://www.leeds.ac.uk/english/staff/afg/pragp3.doc
86. ^ a b http://www.singstat.gov.sg/pubn/papers/people/c2000adr-literacy.pdf
87. ^ http://blogs.nlb.gov.sg/ask/children/481
88. ^ http://www.straitstimes.com/BreakingNews/World/Story/STIStory_509196.html
89. ^ http://www.cambridgelanguages.com/courses/englishv1.htm
90. ^ http://www.moe.gov.sg/media/speeches/2010/04/19/speech-by-mr-s-iswaran-at-the-apec-relc-int-seminar-opening-ceremony.php
91. ^ http://www.contactsingapore.sg/exp_pro/live/language/
92. ^ Singapore Arms and Flag and National Anthem Act (Cap. 296, 1985 Rev. Ed.).
93. ^ Speak Mandarin Campaign
94. ^ http://app.www.sg/where/default.aspx
95. ^ “Renaissance City Report: Culture and the Arts in Renaissance Singapore (Ministry of Information, Communications and the Arts)” (PDF). http://www.mica.gov.sg/renaissance/FinalRen.pdf. Retrieved 1 May 2006. [dead link]
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97. ^ Chee, Frankie. “Stand-up is back”, The Straits Times, 12 July 2009.
98. ^ http://www.rad.org.uk/Press_GeneeInternationalBalletCompetition2009.htm
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101. ^ “Youth Olympic Games 2010 (Singapore)”. Press release. http://www.olympic.org/uk/news/media_centre/press_release_uk.asp?release=2492. Retrieved 15 March 2008.
102. ^ “Singapore won bid to host the inaugural 2010 Summer Youth Olympics”. Press release. http://www.singapore2010.sg/. Retrieved 22 April 2010.
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Bibliography

* Hill, Michael; Kwen Fee Lian (1995). The Politics of Nation Building and Citizenship in Singapore. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-12025-X
* King, Rodney (2008). The Singapore Miracle, Myth and Reality. Insight Press. ISBN 0-9775567-0-0
* Mauzy, Diane K.; Milne, R.S. (2002). Singapore Politics: Under the People’s Action Party. Routledge. ISBN 0415246539.
* Tan, Kenneth Paul (2007). Renaissance Singapore? Economy, Culture, and Politics. NUS Press. ISBN 9971693770.
* Lee Kuan Yew (2000). From Third World To First: The Singapore Story: 1965–2000. New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-019776-5
* Worthington, Ross (2002). Governance in Singapore. Routledge/Curzon. ISBN 0-7007-1474-X.
* “Census of Population (2000)” (PDF). Singapore Department of Statistics. http://www.singstat.gov.sg/pubn/popn/cop2000admin.pdf. Retrieved 11 January 2000.
* “Key Facts & Figures”. Ministry of Transport, Singapore. http://www.mot.gov.sg/. Retrieved 11 January 2003.
* “Nation’s History”. Singapore Infomap. http://app.www.sg/who/4/Our-History.aspx. Retrieved 11 January 2004.
* “MOE-PRIME”. Programme For Rebuilding and IMproving Existing schools (PRIME). Archived from the original on 23 August 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070823024237/http://www.moe.gov.sg/prime/prime.htm. Retrieved 15 May 2007.
* Ministry of Education (14 February 2007). “Eight More Schools to Benefit from Upgrading”. Press release. http://www.moe.gov.sg/press/2007/pr20070214.htm. Retrieved 15 May 2007.

External links
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* Singapore Government Directory Interactive
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* Singapore from UCB Libraries GovPubs
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* Wikimedia Atlas of Singapore
* WikiSatellite view of Singapore at WikiMapia
* Official Gateway To Singapore

Travel

* Singapore travel guide from Wikitravel, also as book Wikitravel Singapore: The free, complete, up-to-date and reliable guide to Singapore, ISBN 1229217831

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English Wiktionary

* This article incorporates public domain text from the websites of the Singapore Department of Statistics, the United States Department of State, the United States Library of Congress and the CIA World Factbook.

Retrieved from “http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singapore”
Categories: Capitals in Asia | Singapore | Southeast Asian countries | City-states | Countries bordering the South China Sea | Association of Southeast Asian Nations member states | Populated coastal places | Former British colonies | Island countries | Members of the Commonwealth of Nations | Republics | English-speaking countries and territories | Chinese-speaking countries and territories | Tamil-speaking countries and territories | Malay-speaking countries and territories | States and territories established in 1965

Flag
Motto: “Bersekutu Bertambah Mutu”
“Unity Is Strength” [1]
Anthem: Negaraku (My Country)
Capital Kuala Lumpur[a]
Putrajaya (administrative centre)
3°08′N 101°42′E / 3.133°N 101.7°E / 3.133; 101.7
Largest city Kuala Lumpur
Official language(s) Malay[b]
Ethnic groups 54% Malay
25% Chinese
7.5% Indian
11.8% other Bumiputera
1.7% other
Demonym Malaysian
Government Federal constitutional elective monarchy and Parliamentary democracy
– Yang di-Pertuan Agong Mizan Zainal Abidin
– Prime Minister Najib Tun Razak
– Deputy Prime Minister Muhyiddin Yassin
Independence
– From the United Kingdom (Malaya only) 31 August 1957
– Federation (with Sabah, Sarawak and Singapore[c] 16 September 1963
Area
– Total 329,845 km2 (66th)
127,354 sq mi
– Water (%) 0.3
Population
– 2009 estimate 28,310,000[2] (43rd)
– 2000 census 24,821,286
– Density 85.8/km2 (114th)
222.3/sq mi
GDP (PPP) 2009 estimate
– Total $382.257 billion[3]
– Per capita $13,769[3]
GDP (nominal) 2009 estimate
– Total $191.463 billion[3]
– Per capita $6,896[3]
Gini (2004) 40.3
HDI (2007) ▲ 0.829[4] (high) (66th)
Currency Ringgit (RM) (MYR)
Time zone MST (UTC+8)
– Summer (DST) not observed (UTC+8)
Date formats dd-mm-yyyy
Drives on the Left
Internet TLD .my
Calling code +60
^ a. Kuala Lumpur is the capital city of Malaysia and is home to the legislative branch of the Federal government. Putrajaya is the primary seat of the federal government where the executive and judicial branches are located.

^ b. The current terminology as per government policy is Bahasa Malaysia (literally Malaysian language)[5] but legislation continues to refer to the official language as Bahasa Melayu (literally Malay language). English may continue to be used for some official purposes under the National Language Act 1967.
^ c. Singapore became an independent country on 9 August 1965.

Malaysia (pronounced Listeni /məˈleɪʒə/ mə-LAY-zhə or Listeni //məˈleɪziə// mə-LAY-zee-ə) is a constitutional monarchy in Southeast Asia. It consists of thirteen states and three federal territories and has a total landmass of 329,845 square kilometres (127,354 sq mi).[6][7] The capital city is Kuala Lumpur, while Putrajaya is the seat of the federal government. The population stands at over 28 million.[2]

The country is separated by the South China Sea into two regions, Peninsular Malaysia and Malaysian Borneo (also known as East Malaysia).[7] Malaysia borders Thailand, Indonesia, Singapore and Brunei.[7] It is near the equator and has a tropical climate.[7]

Malaysia’s head of state is the Yang di-Pertuan Agong,[8] an elected monarch, and the head of government is the Prime Minister.[9][10] The government is closely modelled on the Westminster parliamentary system.[11]

Malaysia has a biodiverse range of flora and fauna, and is considered one of the 17 megadiverse countries.[12]
Contents
[hide]

* 1 Etymology
* 2 History
o 2.1 Prehistory
o 2.2 Early history
o 2.3 Melaka
o 2.4 British arrival
o 2.5 Post independence
* 3 Government and politics
o 3.1 Foreign relations and armed forces
* 4 Administrative divisions
* 5 Geography
o 5.1 Natural resources
* 6 Economy
o 6.1 Transportation and energy
o 6.2 Tourism
* 7 Science and technology
o 7.1 Spaceflight program
o 7.2 Engineering
+ 7.2.1 Military engineering
+ 7.2.2 Health sciences
* 8 Demographics
o 8.1 Religion
o 8.2 Islamic religiosity
o 8.3 Education
+ 8.3.1 Primary education
+ 8.3.2 Secondary education
+ 8.3.3 Tertiary education
+ 8.3.4 International schools
o 8.4 Healthcare
o 8.5 Citizenship
* 9 Culture
o 9.1 Languages
o 9.2 Holidays
* 10 See also
* 11 References
o 11.1 Additional references
* 12 External links

Etymology
English Map of Southeast Asia, with the word “MALAYSIA” typeset horizontally so that the letters run across the northernmost corner of Borneo and pass just south of the Philippines.
Malaysia appears on a 1914 map from a United States atlas.

The name Malaysia was adopted in 1963 when the existing states of the Federation of Malaya, plus Singapore, North Borneo and Sarawak formed a new federation.[13][14] However the name itself had been vaguely used to refer to areas in Southeast Asia prior to that. A map published in 1914 in Chicago has the word Malaysia printed on it referring to certain territories within the Malay Archipelago.[15] Politicians in the Philippines once contemplated naming their state “Malaysia”, but in 1963 Malaysia adopted the name first.[16] At the time of the 1963 federation, other names were considered: among them was Langkasuka, after the historic kingdom located at the upper section of the Malay Peninsula in the first millennium of the common era.[17]

In 1850 the English ethnologist George Samuel Windsor Earl, writing in the Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia, proposed naming the islands of Indonesia as Melayunesia or Indunesia. He favoured the former[18] for the colonial reference.

Following his 1826 expedition in Oceania, the French Navigator Jules Dumont d’Urville invented the terms Malaisia, Micronesia and Melanesia, distinguishing these Pacific cultures and island groups from Polynesia. In 1831, he proposed these terms to The Société de Géographie (Paris, France), the world’s oldest geographical society. For the name Malaisia, Dumont d’Urville had in mind a region including present day Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines. At that time, it was thought that the inhabitants of this region could be designated by the encompassing term “Malay”.

In a strict sense, however, the Malays are the people who speak the Malay language and live on the east coast of Sumatra, the Riau Islands, the Malay Peninsula and the coastline of the island of Borneo.

The Treaty of 1824 between the English and the Dutch resulted in a division of the Malay world. The term “Malaysian” is used to refer to Malaysia as a state, while the word “Malay” refers to the language, culture, and ethnicity, and thus covers a larger area. The term “Malay world”, therefore, refers to the geographical area inhabited by the Malays.[19]

The word Melayu itself is said[who?] to have originated from the Melayu Kingdom, a classical kingdom that existed between the 7th and the 13th century and was established around present-day Dharmasraya on Sumatera. It was founded by the society around the Batanghari river and the gold traders from the Minangkabau hinterland.[20] The continental part of the country bore the name Malaya (without the “-si-”) until 1963, when it federated with the territories of Sabah, Sarawak and Singapore on the northern part of the island of Borneo.[21][22]
History
Main article: History of Malaysia
Prehistory
Main article: Prehistoric Malaysia

Archaeological remains have been found throughout peninsular Malaysia, Sabah and Sarawak. The earliest evidence of human habitation in the area dates back 40,000 years.[23] These Mesolithic hunters were probably the ancestors of the Semang, an ethnic Negrito group who have a deep ancestry within the Malay Peninsula.[24]

The Senoi appear to be a composite group, with approximately half of the maternal DNA lineages tracing back to the ancestors of the Semang and about half to later ancestral migrations from Indochina. Scholars suggest they are descendants of early Austronesian-speaking agriculturalists, who brought both their language and their technology to the southern part of the peninsula approximately 4,000 years ago. They united and coalesced with the indigenous population.[25]

The Proto Malays have a more diverse origin.[26] Although they show some connections with Maritime Southeast Asia, some also have an ancestry in Indochina around the time of the Last Glacial Maximum, about 20,000 years ago. Anthropologists support the notion that the Proto-Malays originated from what is today Yunnan, China.[27] This was followed by an early-Holocene dispersal through the Malay Peninsula into the Malay Archipelago.[28] Around 300 BC, they were pushed inland by the Deutero-Malays, an Iron Age or Bronze Age people descended partly from the Chams of Cambodia and Vietnam. The first group in the peninsula to use metal tools, the Deutero-Malays were the direct ancestors of today’s Malaysian Malays.[24]
Early history

The Malay Peninsula was known to ancient Indians as Suvarnadvipa or the “Golden Peninsula”. It was shown on Ptolemy’s map as the “Golden Khersonese”. He referred to the Straits of Melaka as Sinus Sabaricus.[29] Traders and settlers from India and China arrived as early as the first century of the common era. The Chinese and Indians established trading ports and towns in the area in the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE— as many as 30, according to Chinese sources. Their influence on the local culture was strong. In the early centuries of the first millennium, the people of the Malay Peninsula adopted the Indian religions of Hinduism and Buddhism, as well as the use of the Sanskrit writing system.

Among the earliest kingdoms known to have been based in what is now Malaysia is the ancient empire of Langkasuka, located in the northern Malay Peninsula around Tasik Chini. It was closely tied to Funan in Cambodia, which also ruled part of northern Malaysia until the 6th century. According to the Sejarah Melayu (“Malay Annals”), the Khmer prince Raja Ganji Sarjuna founded the kingdom of Gangga Negara (modern-day Beruas, Perak) in the 700s. Between the 7th and the 13th century, much of Peninsular Malaysia was under the Srivijaya empire, which was centered in Palembang on the island of Sumatra.

In 1025 and 1026 Gangga Negara was attacked by Rajendra Chola I, the Tamil emperor who is now thought to have laid Kota Gelanggi to waste. Kedah—known as Kedaram, Cheh-Cha (according to I-Ching) or Kataha, in ancient Pallava or Sanskrit—was in the direct route of the invasions and was ruled by the Cholas from 1025. The senior Chola’s successor, Vira Rajendra Chola, had to put down a Kedah rebellion to overthrow other invaders. The coming of the Chola reduced the majesty of Srivijaya, an Indonesian kingdom which had exerted influence over Kedah, Pattani and as far as Ligor.

“Pattinapalai”, a Tamil poem of the second century CE, describes goods from Kedaram heaped in the broad streets of the Chola capital. A 7th-century Sanskrit drama, Kaumudhimahotsva, refers to Kedah as Kataha-nagari. The Agnipurana also mentions a territory known as Anda-Kataha with one of its boundaries delineated by a peak, which scholars believe is Gunung Jerai. Stories from the Katasaritasagaram describe the elegance of life in Kataha. The Buddhist kingdom of Ligor took control of Kedah shortly after. Its king Chandrabhanu used it as a base to attack Sri Lanka in the 11th century, an event noted in a stone inscription in Nagapattinum in Tamil Nadu and in the Sri Lankan chronicles, Mahavamsa.

After the fall of Srivijaya, the Java-based Majapahit empire had influence over most of Indonesia, Peninsular Malaysia, and the coasts of Borneo island.
Melaka
Stained ruin of a stone building, showing a central arch, flanked by two columns, with a stone relief above the arch, also flanked by two columns, and a second free-standing arch perched on the very top of the ruin.
A Famosa fortress in Melaka. It was built by the Portuguese in the 16th century.

In the early 1400s, Parameswara, a prince from Palembang in the former Srivijayan empire, established a dynasty and founded what would become the Malacca Sultanate. Conquest forced him and many others to flee Palembang. Parameswara in particular sailed to Temasek to escape persecution. There he came under the protection of Temagi, a Malay chief from Patani who was appointed by the king of Siam as regent of Temasek. Within a few days, Parameswara killed Temagi and appointed himself regent. Some five years later he had to leave Temasek, due to threats from Siam. During this period, a Javanese fleet from Majapahit attacked Temasek.

Parameswara headed north to found a new settlement. At Muar, Parameswara considered siting his new kingdom at either Biawak Busuk or at Kota Buruk. Finding that the Muar location was not suitable, he continued his journey northwards. Along the way, he reportedly visited Sening Ujong (former name of present-day Sungai Ujong) before reaching a fishing village at the mouth of the Bertam River (former name of the Melaka River). Over time this developed into modern-day Malacca Town. According to the Malay Annals, here Parameswara saw a mouse deer outwitting a dog resting under a Malacca tree. Taking this as a good omen, he decided to establish a kingdom called Melaka (Malacca). He built and improved facilities for trade.

At the time of Melaka’s founding, the emperor of Ming Dynasty China was sending out fleets of ships to expand trade. Admiral Zheng He called at Melaka and brought Parameswara with him on his return to China, a recognition of his position as legitimate ruler of Melaka. In exchange for regular tribute, the Chinese emperor offered Melaka protection from the constant threat of a Siamese attack. The Chinese and Indians who settled in the Malay Peninsula before and during this period are the ancestors of today’s Baba-Nyonya and Chetti community.

According to a theory, Parameswara became a Muslim when he married a Princess of Pasai and he took the fashionable Persian title “Shah”, calling himself Iskandar Shah.[30] Chinese chronicles mention that in 1414, the son of the first ruler of Melaka visited the Ming emperor to inform them that his father had died. Parameswara’s son was then officially recognised as the second ruler of Melaka by the Chinese Emperor and styled Raja Sri Rama Vikrama, Raja of Parameswara of Temasek and Melaka and he was known to his Muslim subjects as Sultan Sri Iskandar Zulkarnain Shah or Sultan Megat Iskandar Shah. He ruled Melaka from 1414 to 1424.[30][31] Through the influence of Indian Muslims and, to a lesser extent, Hui people from China, Islam became increasingly common during the 15th century. Melaka’s position as the most prominent kingdom in the peninsula allowed the faith to spread to neighbouring states. By the start of the 16th century it had become the dominant religion among Malays.

In 1511, Melaka was conquered by Portugal, which established a colony there. The sons of the last Melakan ruler established two kingdoms elsewhere in the peninsula — the Perak Sultanate to the north, and the Johor Sultanate (originally a continuation of the old Melaka sultanate) to the south. After the fall of Melaka, three powers struggled for the control of Melaka Strait: the Portuguese (in Melaka), Johor, and Aceh. This conflict went on until 1641, when the Dutch (allied to Johor) gained control of Melaka.
British arrival
A grey and white striped chart displaying significant dates and events of the Malaysian history.
Evolution of Malaysia

Britain established its first colony in the Malay Peninsula in 1786, with the lease of the island of Penang to the British East India Company by the sultan of Kedah. In 1824, the British took control of Melaka following the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 which divided the Malay archipelago between Britain and the Netherlands, with Malaya in the British zone. In 1826, Britain established the crown colony of the Straits Settlements, uniting its four possessions in Malaya: Penang, Melaka, Singapore and the island of Labuan. The Straits Settlements were initially administered under the East India Company in Calcutta, before first Penang, and later Singapore became the administrative centre of the crown colony, until 1867, when they were transferred to the Colonial Office in London.

During the late 19th century, many Malay states decided to obtain British help in settling their internal conflicts. The commercial importance of tin mining in the Malay states to merchants in the Straits Settlements led to British government intervention in the tin-producing states in the Malay Peninsula. British gunboat diplomacy was employed to bring about a peaceful resolution to civil disturbances caused by Chinese and Malay gangsters employed in a political tussle between Ngah Ibrahim and Raja Muda Abdullah, and the Pangkor Treaty of 1874 paved the way for the expansion of British influence in Malaya. By the turn of the 20th century, the states of Pahang, Selangor, Perak, and Negeri Sembilan, known together as the Federated Malay States (not to be confused with the Federation of Malaya), were under the de facto control of British Residents appointed to advise the Malay rulers. The British were “advisers” in name, but in reality, they exercised substantial influence over the Malay rulers.
Street scene; a large fountain visible in the right foreground, a row of palm trees stretching away to the left, and in the centre of the image, across the street, a large white and beige stone building, with a tall domed central tower and two smaller domed towers to the right and left.
Sultan Abdul Samad Building in Kuala Lumpur houses the High Court of Malaya and the Trade Court. Kuala Lumpur was the capital of the Federated Malay States and is the current Malaysian capital.
Participants at a public event are dwarfed by a huge poster image displayed in the background. The poster, which is more wide than tall, depicts a crowd of confident-looking people, linking arms and looking out of the picture at the observer, with factory chimneys, a ship and other stylised industrial buildings in the background. Above the image, in large letters, the words “Majulah Malaysia”.
A poster depicting the Malaysia Day celebration in 1963. (Majulah Malaysia means “Onwards Malaysia”.)

The remaining five states in the peninsula, known as the Unfederated Malay States, while not directly under rule from London, also accepted British advisers around the turn of the 20th century. Of these, the four northern states of Perlis, Kedah, Kelantan and Terengganu had previously been under Siamese control. The other unfederated state, Johor, was the only state which managed to preserve its independence throughout most of the 19th century. Sultan Abu Bakar of Johor and Queen Victoria were personal acquaintances, and recognised each other as equals. It was not until 1914 that Sultan Abu Bakar’s successor, Sultan Ibrahim accepted a British adviser.

On the island of Borneo, Sabah was governed as the crown colony of British North Borneo, while Sarawak was acquired from Brunei as the personal kingdom of the Brooke family, who ruled as white Rajahs.

Following the Japanese Invasion of Malaya and its subsequent occupation during World War II, popular support for independence grew.[32] Post-war British plans to unite the administration of Malaya under a single crown colony called the Malayan Union foundered on strong opposition from the Malays, who opposed the emasculation of the Malay rulers and the granting of citizenship to the ethnic Chinese.[33] The Malayan Union, established in 1946 and consisting of all the British possessions in Malaya with the exception of Singapore, was dissolved in 1948 and replaced by the Federation of Malaya, which restored the autonomy of the rulers of the Malay states under British protection.

During this time, rebels under the leadership of the Malayan Communist Party launched guerrilla operations designed to force the British out of Malaya. The Malayan Emergency, as it was known, lasted from 1948 to 1960, and involved a long anti-insurgency campaign by Commonwealth troops in Malaya. Although the insurgency quickly stopped there was still a presence of Commonwealth troops, with the backdrop of the Cold War.[34] Against this backdrop, independence for the Federation within the Commonwealth was granted on 31 August 1957.[35]
Post independence
A photo showing former Prime Minister Mahatir bin Mohamad standing with head down and surrounded by government officials at the celebration of the 50th independence day.
Mahathir bin Mohamad was the leading force in making Malaysia into a major industrial power.

In 1963, Malaya along with the then British crown colonies of Sabah, Sarawak and Singapore, formed Malaysia. The Sultanate of Brunei, though initially expressing interest in joining the Federation, withdrew from the planned merger due to opposition from certain segments of its population as well as arguments over the payment of oil royalties and the status of the Sultan in the planned merger.[36][37] The actual proposed date for the formation of Malaysia was 31 August 1963, to coincide with the independence day of Malaya and the British giving self-rule to Sarawak and Sabah. However, the date was delayed by opposition from the Indonesian government led by Sukarno and also attempts by the Sarawak United People’s Party to delay the formation of Malaysia. Due to these factors, an 8-member United Nations team had to be formed to re-ascertain whether Sabah and Sarawak truly wanted to join Malaysia.[38]

The early years of independence were marred by the conflict with Indonesia (Konfrontasi) over the formation of Malaysia, Singapore’s eventual exit in 1965, and racial strife in the form of race riots in 1969.[39][40] The Philippines also made an active claim on Sabah in that period based upon the Sultanate of Brunei’s secession of its north-east territories to the Sulu Sultanate in 1704.[41][42][43] The claim is still ongoing.[44] After the 13 May race riots of 1969, the controversial New Economic Policy—intended to increase proportionally the share of the economic “pie” of the bumiputras (“indigenous people”, which includes the majority Malays, but not always the indigenous population) as compared to other ethnic groups—was launched by Prime Minister Tun Abdul Razak. Malaysia has since maintained a delicate ethno-political balance, with a system of government that has attempted to combine overall economic development with political and economic policies that promote equitable participation of all races.[45]

Between the 1980s and the mid-1990s, Malaysia experienced economic growth under the premiership of Mahathir bin Mohamad.[46] The period saw a shift from an agriculture-based economy to one based on manufacturing and industry in areas such as computers and consumer electronics. It was during this period, too, that the physical landscape of Malaysia changed with the emergence of numerous mega-projects. The most notable of these projects being the Petronas Twin Towers (at the time the tallest building in the world, which, in 2010, still retains its status as the tallest twin building), KL International Airport (KLIA), North-South Expressway, the Sepang International Circuit, the Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC), the Bakun hydroelectric dam and Putrajaya, the new federal administrative capital.

In the late 1990s, Malaysia was shaken by the Asian financial crisis as well as political unrest caused by the sacking of the deputy prime minister Dato’ Seri Anwar Ibrahim.[47] In 2003, Dr Mahathir, Malaysia’s longest serving prime minister, retired in favour of his deputy, Abdullah Ahmad Badawi. In November 2007, Malaysia was rocked by two anti-government rallies. The 2007 Bersih Rally, with 40,000 participants, was held in Kuala Lumpur on 10 November, campaigning for electoral reform. It was precipitated by allegations of corruption and discrepancies in the Malaysian election system that heavily favoured the ruling political party, Barisan Nasional, which had been in power since Malaysia achieved its independence in 1957.[48] Another rally was held on 25 November in the Malaysian capital led by HINDRAF. The rally organiser, the Hindu Rights Action Force, had called the protest over alleged discriminatory policies which favoured ethnic Malays. The crowd was estimated to be between 5,000 and 30,000.[49] In both cases the government and police were heavy-handed and tried to prevent the gatherings from taking place. In 16 October 2008, HINDRAF was banned when the government labelled the organisation as “a threat to national security”.[50]
Government and politics
Main article: Politics of Malaysia
A photo showing the Malaysian Parliament building along with 2 white arches in diagonal position front of the building.
The Malaysian Houses of Parliament is the building where the Malaysian Parliament assembles. The main building houses the Dewan Rakyat and the Dewan Negara while the representatives’ offices are located in the tower.
Picture of the Perdana Putra, the building complex of the Prime Minister’s office. Picture includes part of the parking lot.
The Perdana Putra is a building complex in Putrajaya which houses the Prime Minister of Malaysia’s office.
an official photo of current prime minister Najib Tun Razak.
Current Prime Minister of Malaysia, Najib Tun Razak.

Malaysia is a federal constitutional elective monarchy. The federal head of state of Malaysia is the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, commonly referred to as the King of Malaysia. The Yang di-Pertuan Agong is elected to a five-year term among the nine hereditary Sultans of the Malay states; the other four states, which have titular Governors, do not participate in the selection.[51]

The system of government in Malaysia is closely modelled on that of the Westminster parliamentary system, a legacy of British colonial rule. Since independence in 1957, Malaysia has been governed by a multi-party coalition known as the Barisan Nasional (formerly known as the Alliance Party).[52]

Legislative power is divided between federal and state legislatures. The bicameral parliament consists of the lower house, the House of Representatives or Dewan Rakyat (literally the “Chamber of the People”) and the upper house, the Senate or Dewan Negara (literally the “Chamber of the Nation”).[53][54][54] The 222-member House of Representatives are elected from single-member constituencies that are defined based on population for a maximum term of five years. All 70 Senators sit for three-year terms; 26 are elected by the 13 state assemblies, two representing the federal territory of Kuala Lumpur, one each from federal territories of Labuan and Putrajaya, and 40 are appointed by the king.

Besides the Parliament at the federal level, each state has a unicameral state legislative chamber (Malay: Dewan Undangan Negeri) whose members are elected from single-member constituencies. Parliamentary elections are held at least once every five years, with the last general election being in March 2008.[52] Registered voters of age 21 and above may vote for the members of the House of Representatives and, in most of the states, for the state legislative chamber as well. Voting is not compulsory.[55]

Executive power is vested in the cabinet led by the prime minister; the Malaysian constitution stipulates that the prime minister must be a member of the lower house of parliament who, in the opinion of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, commands a majority in parliament.[56] The cabinet is chosen from among members of both houses of Parliament and is responsible to that body.[57]

State governments are led by Chief Ministers (Menteri Besar in Malay states or Ketua Menteri in states without hereditary rulers), who are state assembly members from the majority party in the Dewan Undangan Negeri. In each of the states with a hereditary ruler, the Chief Minister is required to be a Malay-Muslim, although this rule is subject to the rulers’ discretion.
Foreign relations and armed forces
The Royal Malaysian Air Force’s Sukhoi Su-30MKM Flankers and Aermacchi MB-339s military aircraft at the Langkawi Airport.
The RMAF state-of-art Sukhoi Su-30 MKM MRCA.
Main articles: Foreign relations of Malaysia and Malaysian Armed Forces

Malaysia is a founding member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and participates in many international organisations such as the United Nations.[58][59] As a former British colony, it is also a member of the Commonwealth of Nations.[60] It is a member of the Developing 8 Countries.[61] Malaysia has diplomatic relations with many countries[specify] but does not recognise the State of Israel. As such, no traveller with a Malaysian passport can enter Israel.

Malaysian defence requirements are assigned to the Malaysian Armed Forces (Angkatan Tentera Malaysia-ATM). The armed forces has three branches, the Royal Malaysian Navy (Tentera Laut Diraja Malaysia-TLDM), Malaysian Army (Tentera Darat Malaysia-TD), and the Royal Malaysian Air Force (Tentera Udara Diraja Malaysia-TUDM). The Tentera Udara Diraja Malaysia operates both American and Russian made fighter aircraft.
Administrative divisions
Main articles: States of Malaysia and Districts of Malaysia

Administratively, Malaysia consists of 13 states (11 in peninsular Malaysia and 2 in Malaysian Borneo) and 3 federal territories. Each state is further divided into districts (daerah or jajahan in Kelantan) and a subdivision of a district is called mukim. As Malaysia is a federation, the governance of the country is divided between the federal and the state governments.
Perlis
Kedah
Penang
Kelantan
Terengganu
Perak
Selangor
Negeri Sembilan
Malacca
Johor
Pahang
Sarawak
Sabah
●
●
●
South China Sea
Strait
of
Malacca
Gulf of Thailand
Sulu Sea
Celebes Sea
Name↓ Capital↓ Pop.↓ Area (km²)↓ Population Density↓ Human Development Index (HDI)↓ Largest Metropolitan↓ Population↓
Kuala Lumpur Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur Kuala Lumpur 1,810,000 243 7449 0.868 Klang Valley 8,063,000
Labuan Federal Territory of Labuan Victoria 90,000 92 978 – – –
Putrajaya Federal Territory of Putrajaya Putrajaya 65,000 46 1413 – – –
Johor Johor Bahru 3,385,000 19,984 169 0.805 Johor Bahru 1,800,000
Kedah Alor Setar 2,000,000 9,426 213 0.741 Alor Setar 600,000
Kelantan Kota Bharu 1,635,000 14,922 110 0.728 Kota Bharu 577,300
Malacca Malacca Town 770,000 1,650 467 0.810 Malacca Town 455,300
Negeri Sembilan Seremban 1,014,000 6,645 153 0.801 Seremban 419,500
Pahang Kuantan 1,543,000 35,964 43 0.776 Kuantan 607,800
Perak Ipoh 2,393,000 21,006 114 0.790 Ipoh 814,000
Perlis Kangar 241,000 810 298 0.785 Kangar 50,000
Penang George Town 1,578,000 1,046 1509 0.851 Penang 2,200,000
Sabah Kota Kinabalu 3,203,000 76,115 42 0.735 Kota Kinabalu 900,000
Selangor Shah Alam 5,180,000 7,956 650 0.907 Klang Valley 8,063,000
Sarawak Kuching 2,504,000 124,450 20 0.763 Kuching 658,600
Terengganu Kuala Terengganu 1,121,000 12,955 87 0.813 Kuala Terengganu 396,400
Geography
Main article: Geography of Malaysia
Map of Peninsular and East Malaysia, showing some of the states and some of the state capitals. Also includes the borders of Thailand, Indonesia, Singapore and Vietnam together with a couple of island groups belonging to Indonesia.
Map of peninsular Malaysia and East Malaysia (Malaysian Borneo).
Shoreline of a beach in Pulau Tioman(Tioman Island) with large boulders at the water edge and a mangrove.
Beach scenery of Pulau Tioman.

Malaysia is the 43rd most populated country and the 66th largest country by total land area in the world, with a population of about 28 million and a land area of over 320,000 km2 respectively. It is comparable in population to Saudi Arabia and Venezuela, and is roughly similar in size to Norway and Vietnam.

The two distinct parts of Malaysia, separated from each other by the South China Sea, share a largely similar landscape in that both West and East Malaysia feature coastal plains rising to often densely forested hills and mountains, the highest of which is Mount Kinabalu at 4,095.2 metres (13,436 ft) on the island of Borneo. East Malaysia, like most of the island of Borneo, was traditionally covered with Borneo lowland rain forests although much has been cleared, with wildlife retreating to the upland rain forests inland. The local climate is equatorial and characterised by the annual southwest (April to October) and northeast (October to February) monsoons.
Ariel view of Kota Kinabalu, the capital of Sabah, an East Malaysian state.
Kota Kinabalu, capital of East Malaysian state of Sabah is located 1,600 kilometres (990 mi) east across the South China Sea from Kuala Lumpur.

Tanjung Piai, located in the southern state of Johor, is the southernmost tip of continental Asia.[62][63] The Strait of Malacca, lying between Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia, is arguably the most important shipping lane in the world.[64]

Kuala Lumpur is the official capital and largest city of Malaysia. Putrajaya is the federal administrative capital. Although many executive and judicial branches of the federal government have moved there (to ease growing congestion within Kuala Lumpur), Kuala Lumpur is still recognised as the legislative capital of Malaysia since it houses the seat of the Parliament of Malaysia. It is also the main commercial and financial centre of the country.

Other major cities include George Town, Ipoh, Johor Bahru, Kuching, Kota Kinabalu, Miri, Alor Star, Malacca Town, Kuala Terengganu, Kota Bharu, Kuantan and Petaling Jaya.
Natural resources

Malaysia is well endowed with natural resources in areas such as agriculture, forestry and minerals. In terms of agriculture, Malaysia is one of the top exporters of natural rubber and palm oil, which, together with sawn logs and sawn timber, cocoa, pepper, pineapples and tobacco, dominate the growth of the sector. Palm oil is also a major generator of foreign exchange.
Picture depicting a few palm oil trees in a plantation.
Palm oil estate in Malaysia.

Logging only began to make a substantial contribution to the economy during the 19th century. Today, an estimated 59% of Malaysia remains forested. The rapid expansion of the timber industry, particularly after the 1960s, has brought about a serious erosion problem in the country’s forest resources. However, in line with the Government’s commitment to protect the environment and the ecological system, forestry resources are being managed on a sustainable basis and accordingly the rate of tree felling has been on the decline.

In addition, substantial areas are being silviculturally treated and reforestation of degraded forestland is being carried out. The Malaysian government provides plans for the enrichment of some 312.30 square kilometers (120.5 sq mi) of land with rattan under natural forest conditions and in rubber plantations as an inter crop. To further enrich forest resources, fast-growing timber species such as meranti tembaga, merawan and sesenduk are also being planted. At the same time, the cultivation of high-value trees like teak and other trees for pulp and paper is also encouraged. Rubber, once the mainstay of the Malaysian economy, has been largely replaced by oil palm as Malaysia’s leading agricultural export.

Tin and petroleum are the two main mineral resources of major significance to the Malaysian economy. Malaysia was, at one time, the world’s largest producer of tin prior to the collapse of the tin market in the early 1980s. In the 19th and 20th centuries, tin played a predominant role in the Malaysian economy. In 1972 petroleum and natural gas took over from tin as the mainstay of the mineral extraction sector. Meanwhile, the contribution by tin has declined. Petroleum and natural gas discoveries in oil fields off Sabah, Sarawak and Terengganu have contributed much to the Malaysian economy. Other minerals of some importance or significance include copper, bauxite, iron-ore and coal together with industrial minerals like clay, kaolin, silica, limestone, barite, phosphates and dimension stones such as granite as well as marble blocks and slabs. Small quantities of gold are produced.

In 2004, a minister in the Prime Minister’s Department, Mustapa Mohamed, revealed that Malaysia’s oil reserves stood at 4.84 billion barrels (769,000,000 m3) while natural gas reserves increased to 89 trillion cubic feet (2,500 km3). This was an increase of 7.2%.[citation needed] As of January 2009, Malaysia has proven oil reserves of up to 4 billion barrels.[65] In January 2008, the Malaysian natural gas reserves holds up to 14.67 billion barrels of oil equivalent.[66]

The government estimates that, at current production rates, Malaysia will be able to produce oil for up to 18 years and gas for 35 years. In 2004, Malaysia is ranked 24th in terms of world oil reserves and 13th for gas. 56% of the oil reserves exist in the Peninsula, while 19% exist in East Malaysia. The government collects oil royalties of which 5% are passed to the states and the remainder retained by the federal government.[citation needed]
Economy
Main article: Economy of Malaysia
See also: Gasoline and diesel usage and pricing in Malaysia

Southeast Asia has been a centre of trade for centuries. International trade, facilitated by the adjacent Strait of Malacca shipping route, [67] and manufacturing [68] are both key sectors of the country’s economy.

In the 17th century, porcelain and spices were found in several Malay states and were actively traded. Later, as the British started to take over as administrators of Malaya, rubber and palm oil trees were introduced for commercial purposes. Over time, Malaysia became the world’s largest producer of tin, rubber, and palm oil.[69] These three commodities, along with other raw materials, firmly set Malaysia’s economic tempo well into the mid-20th century.

Instead of relying on the local Malays as a source of labour, the British brought in Chinese and Indians to work in the mines and plantations and provide professional expertise. Although many of them returned to their respective home countries after their agreed tenure ended, some remained in Malaysia and settled permanently.

As Malaya moved towards independence, the government began implementing economic five-year plans, beginning with the First Malayan Five Year Plan in 1955. Upon the establishment of Malaysia, the plans were re-titled and renumbered, beginning with the First Malaysia Plan in 1965.

In the 1970s, Malaysia began to imitate the four Asian Tiger economies (Republic of Korea (South Korea), Republic of China (Taiwan), then British Crown Colony of Hong Kong and the Republic of Singapore) and committed itself to a transition from being reliant on mining and agriculture to an economy that depends more on manufacturing. With Japanese investment, heavy industries flourished and in a matter of years, Malaysian exports became the country’s primary growth engine[citation needed]. Malaysia consistently achieved more than 7% GDP growth along with low inflation in the 1980s and the 1990s.[70]

During the same period, the government tried to eradicate poverty with the controversial New Economic Policy (NEP), after the 13 May Incident of racial rioting in 1969.[45] Its main objective was the elimination of the association of race with economic function, and the first five-year plan to begin implementing the NEP was the Second Malaysia Plan. The success or failure of the NEP is the subject of much debate, although it was officially retired in 1990 and replaced by the National Development Policy (NDP). Recently much debate has surfaced once again concerning the results and relevance of the NEP. Some have argued that the NEP has indeed successfully created a Middle/Upper Class of Malay businesspeople and professionals. Despite some improvement in the economic power of Malays in general, the Malaysian government maintains a policy of discrimination that favours ethnic Malays over other races—including preferential treatment in employment, education, scholarships, business, access to cheaper housing and assisted savings. This special treatment has sparked envy and resentment amongst non-Malays.[71]

The ethnic Chinese control of the locally owned sector of the country’s economy, meanwhile, has been ceded largely in favour of the bumiputra/Malays in many essential or strategic industries such as petroleum retailing, transportation, agriculture and automobile manufacturing. The rapid economic boom led to a variety of supply problems, however. Labour shortages soon resulted in an influx of millions of foreign workers, many illegal. Cash-rich PLCs and consortia of banks eager to benefit from increased and rapid development began large infrastructure projects. This all ended when the Asian Financial Crisis hit in the fall of 1997, delivering a massive shock to Malaysia’s economy.
The white color Lotus Europa S car model on display at a Tokyo Motor Show.
Since 1994, the Malaysian car company, Proton, has owned Lotus, a previously British company that produces the Lotus Europa S (pictured here) and other models.

As with other countries affected by the crisis, there was speculative short-selling of the Malaysian currency, the ringgit. Foreign direct investment fell at an alarming rate and, as capital flowed out of the country, the value of the ringgit dropped from MYR 2.50 per USD to, at one point, MYR 4.80 per USD. The Kuala Lumpur Stock Exchange’s composite index plummeted from approximately 1300 points to around 400 points in a matter of weeks. After the controversial sacking of finance minister Anwar Ibrahim, a National Economic Action Council was formed to deal with the monetary crisis. Bank Negara imposed capital controls and pegged the Malaysian ringgit at 3.80 to the US dollar. Malaysia refused economic aid packages from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank, surprising many analysts.

In March 2005, the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) published a paper on the sources and pace of Malaysia’s recovery, written by Jomo K.S. of the applied economics department, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur. The paper concluded that the controls imposed by Malaysia’s government neither hurt nor helped recovery. The chief factor was an increase in electronics components exports, which was caused by a large increase in the demand for components in the United States, which was caused, in turn, by a fear of the effects of the arrival of the year 2000 (Y2K) upon older computers and other digital devices.

However, the post Y2K slump of 2001 did not affect Malaysia as much as other countries. This may have been clearer evidence that there are other causes and effects that can be more properly attributable for recovery. One possibility is that the currency speculators had run out of finance after failing in their attack on the Hong Kong dollar in August 1998 and after the Russian ruble collapsed. (See George Soros)

Regardless of cause and effect claims, rejuvenation of the economy also coincided with massive government spending and budget deficits in the years that followed the crisis. Later, Malaysia enjoyed faster economic recovery compared to its neighbours. The country has recovered to the levels of the pre-crisis era – as an example, the KLCI Composite Index hit an all time high of 1,386 on 20 June 2007 which is approximately 100 points higher than the pre-crisis record of 1,275 in 1993.
Night view of the Petronas Twin Towers with waterworks. Picture taken to give a ground observer’s view.
Malaysia’s rapid economic growth and prosperity is reflected by the Petronas Towers, the headquarters of the national oil giant in Kuala Lumpur and, at one time, the tallest building in the world.

While the pace of development today is not as rapid, it is seen to be more sustainable. Although the controls and economic housekeeping may or may not have been the principal reasons for recovery, there is no doubt that the banking sector has become more resilient to external shocks. The current account has also settled into a structural surplus, providing a cushion to capital flight. Asset prices are generally back to their pre-crisis heights, despite the effects of the global financial crisis. Malaysia is also the world’s largest Islamic banking and financial centre.

The fixed exchange rate was abandoned in July 21, 2005 in favour of a managed floating system within an hour of China announcing the same move.[72] In the same week, the ringgit strengthened a percent against various major currencies and was expected to appreciate further. As of December 2005, however, expectations of further appreciation were muted as capital flight exceeded USD 10 billion.[72] According to Bank Negara’s published figures, Malaysia’s foreign exchange reserves increased steadily since the initial capital flight, from USD75.2 billion as at 15 July 2005 (just before the peg was removed) to peak at USD125.7 billion as at 31 July 2008, a few months before the global credit crisis that started in September 2008. As at 29 May 2009, the reserves stood at USD88.3 billion.

In September 2005, Sir Howard J. Davies, director of the London School of Economics, at a meeting in Kuala Lumpur, cautioned Malaysian officials that if they want a flexible capital market, they will have to lift the ban on short-selling put into effect during the crisis. In March 2006, Malaysia removed the ban on short selling.[73] It is interesting to note that some of the measures taken by the Malaysian government in response to the Asian crisis, such as the ban on short selling, were swiftly adopted by the very countries that had previously been critical of the Malaysian response.

Malaysia is also one of the region’s leading education and healthcare providers. Malaysia is recognised as a newly industrialised country.[74] In 2008, GDP per capita (PPP) of Malaysia stands at US$14,215, ranking it 48th in the world, and 2nd in Southeast Asia (after Singapore).
Transportation and energy
Main articles: Transport in Malaysia and Energy policy of Malaysia

Transportation in Malaysia started to develop during its phase of British colonial rule. Today Malaysia has one of the finest transportation networks in Asia. Malaysia’s road network is among the finest in Asia, covering 63,445 km. The main highway of the country covers a distance over 800 km, reaching the Thai border from Singapore. The network of roads in Peninsular Malaysia is of high quality, however, the road system in Sabah and Sarawak is not as developed as the other parts of the country. Malaysia also has six world class international airports. The official airline of Malaysia is Malaysia Airlines, providing international and domestic air service and there are also two more carriers offering domestic and regional flights. The railway system of the country is state-run, but covers only West Malaysia. The railway network covers a total distance of 1798 km. Another mode of transport which is extremely popular in Malaysia, within the cities, is Light Rail Transit. It is a boon to the crowded cities of the country as it reduces the traffic load, and is safe, comfortable and reliable.

Malaysia currently has approximately 13 gigawatts (GW) of electric generation capacity, of which 84% is thermal and 16% is hydroelectric. In 2000, Malaysia generated around 63 billion kilowatthours of electricity. The Malaysian government expects that investment of $9.7 billion will be required in the electric utility sector through 2010. Much of that amount will be for coal-fired plants, as the Malaysian government is promoting a shift away from the country’s heavy reliance on natural gas for electric power generation. In recent developments, Tenaga Nasional Bhd, the main state-owned utility, began in 1999 to divest some of its power generation units. Eventually, Malaysia expects to achieve a fully competitive power market, with generation, transmission, and distribution decoupled, but reform is still at an early stage and the exact process of the transition to a competitive market has not been decided. The issue is still under study, and many observers have voiced caution in light of the experiences of other deregulated utility systems.
Tourism
Main article: Tourism in Malaysia
See also: Tourism Malaysia

In an effort to diversify the economy and make Malaysia’s economy less dependent on exports the government has pushed to increase tourism in Malaysia. As a result tourism has become Malaysia’s third largest source of income from foreign exchange.[75] The majority of Malaysia’s tourists come from its bordering country, Singapore. In 1999, Malaysia launched a worldwide marketing campaign called “Malaysia, Truly Asia” which was largely successful in bringing in over 7.4 million tourists.[76] The extra revenue recently generated by tourism helped the country’s economy during the economic crisis of 2008. However, it is mainly Malaysia’s heavy government regulation of the economy which enabled it to be barely affected by the recent 2008 global economic crisis.[77] In recent years tourism has been threatened by the negative effects of the growing industrial economy. Due to the large amounts of air and water pollution along with deforestation, tourism has decreased in affected areas.[78] On 20 May, 1987, the Ministry of Culture, Arts and Tourism (MOCAT) was established and TDC moved to this new ministry. TDC existed from 1972 to 1992, when it became the Malaysia Tourism Promotion Board (MTPB), through the Malaysia Tourism Promotion Board Act, 1992.

Tourism Malaysia has grown, with its focus on promoting Malaysia at the domestic and international levels. It aims to market Malaysia as a premier destination of excellence in the region. Its vision is to make the tourism industry a prime contributor to the socio-economic development of the nation. The growth of world tourism, and Malaysia’s potential as a tourism destination, has contributed to the change and focus in the country’s tourism sector. It has helped generate substantial foreign exchange earnings and employment. Tourism Malaysia now has 34 overseas and 11 marketing representative offices.
Science and technology
Main article: Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (Malaysia)
Spaceflight program
Main article: Angkasawan program
See also: Malaysian National Space Agency
Malaysian astronaut Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor responding to a query form the media in a pre-flight press conference.
Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor, the first Malaysian in space

In 2001 MNSA started a plan for scientific development in collaboration with JAXA. In early 2006, Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor and three other finalists were selected for the Angkasawan spaceflight program. This program came about when Russia agreed to transport one Malaysian to the International Space Station as part of a multi-billion dollar purchase of 18 Russian Sukhoi Su-30MKM fighter jets by the Royal Malaysian Air Force.
Engineering
Military engineering

The rejection of requests for weapons and technologies from abroad, arms sanctions and massive rearmament of the Asian countries prompted Malaysia to develop a broad-based, indigenous arms industry. The Malaysian Armed Forces relies heavily on local military technology and high-tech weapons systems designed and manufactured by foreign countries.
Health sciences

Malaysia has an advanced infrastructure of medical and pharmaceutical research and bioengineering capabilities. Biotechnology, biomedical, and clinical research account for over half of the country’s scientific publications, and the industrial sector has used this extensive knowledge to develop pharmaceuticals, medical equipment and treatment therapies.
Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Malaysia
A map of Malaysia depicting the expected 2010 estimated population density.
Malaysia population density (person per Km2).

Malaysia’s population comprises many ethnic groups, with the Malays making up the majority at 50.4%; and other bumiputra at 11%[79] of the population. By constitutional definition, Malays are Muslims who practice Malay customs (adat) and culture. Therefore, technically, a Muslim of any race who practices Malay customs and culture can be considered a Malay and allocated privilleged status in the form of the Bumiputra rights stipulated in the constitution.

Many Malay families today have their ancestries traced to Javanese, Bugis, and Minang sailors who originated in Indonesia, during the 17th to early 20th century. Bumiputra status is also accorded to certain non-Malay indigenous peoples, including ethnic Thais, Khmers, Chams and the natives of Sabah and Sarawak. Non-Malay bumiputra make up more than half of Sarawak’s population (of which 30% are Ibans), and close to 60% of Sabah’s population (of which 18% are Kadazan-Dusuns, and 17% are Bajaus).[79] There also exist aboriginal groups in much smaller numbers on the peninsula, where they are collectively known as Orang Asli.

23.7% of the population are Malaysians of Chinese descent, while Malaysians of Indian descent comprise 7.1% of the population.[79] While Peranakan (“straits-born”) Chinese and Indian families have resided in Malaysia since as far back as 15th century Melaka, the majority of Malaysia’s Chinese and Indian populations are descended from migrants who arrived during the colonial period. Indians began migrating to Malaysia in the early 19th century.[80] The majority of the Indian community are Tamils but various other groups are also present, including Telugus, Malayalis, Punjabis, Sindhis, Bengalis and Gujaratis.

Europeans and Middle Easterners, who first arrived during the colonial period, assimilated through inter-marriage into the Christian and Muslim communities respectively. Most Eurasian Malaysians trace their ancestry to British, Dutch or Portuguese colonists, and there is a strong Kristang community in Melaka.

The Nepali population numbers little over 600 and lives in Rawang, Selangor. Originally brought by the British as bodyguards and security personnel, they come from the Rana, Chettri, Rai and Gurung clans. Other minorities include Filipinos and Burmese. A small number of ethnic Vietnamese from Cambodia and Vietnam settled in Malaysia as Vietnam War refugees.

The population distribution is highly uneven, with some 20 million residents concentrated on the Malay Peninsula, while East Malaysia has about 7 million people. Due to the rise in labour intensive industries, Malaysia has 10% to 20% foreign workers, the exact figure being uncertain due in part to the large number of illegal workers. There are a million legal foreign workers and perhaps another million unauthorised foreigners. The state of Sabah alone had nearly 25% of its 2.7 million population listed as illegal foreign workers in the last census. Sabah NGOs estimate that out of the 3 million population, 2 million are illegal immigrants.[81]

Additionally, according to the World Refugee Survey 2008, published by the U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, Malaysia hosts a population of refugees and asylum seekers numbering approximately 155,700. Of this population, approximately 70,500 refugees and asylum seekers are from the Philippines, 69,700 from Burma, and 21,800 from Indonesia.[82] The U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants named Malaysia as one of the Ten Worst Places for Refugees on account of the country’s discriminatory practices toward refugees. Malaysian officials are reported to have turned deportees directly over to human smugglers in 2007, and Malaysia employs RELA, a volunteer militia, to enforce its immigration law.[82]
Largest Cities of Malaysia

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City State Population City State Population
1 Kuala Lumpur Federal Territory 1,809,699 Kuala Lumpur
Kuala Lumpur
Subang Jaya
Subang Jaya 8 Shah Alam Selangor 617,149
2 Subang Jaya Selangor 1,321,672 9 Kota Kinabalu Sabah 579,304
3 Klang Selangor 1,055,207 10 Kota Bharu Kelantan 577,301
4 Johor Bahru Johor 895 509 11 Petaling Jaya Selangor 543,415
5 Ampang Jaya Selangor 756,309 12 Tebrau Johor 525,351
6 Ipoh Perak 710,798 13 Cheras, Selangor Selangor 515,961
7 Kuching Sarawak 658,562 14 Sandakan Sabah 479,121

Religion
Main article: Religion in Malaysia
Further information: Islam in Malaysia, Buddhism in Malaysia, Christianity in Malaysia, Hinduism in Malaysia, and Sikhism In Malaysia
The wooden Kampung Laut mosque with its minaret and an onion-shaped dome on its tiled roof.
Kampung Laut Mosque in Tumpat is one of the oldest mosques in Malaysia, dating to early 18th century

Islam is the largest and official religion of Malaysia, though it is a multi-religious society. According to the Population and Housing Census 2000 figures, approximately 60.4 percent of the population practised Islam; 19.2 percent Buddhism; 9.1 percent Christianity; 6.3 percent Hinduism; and 2.6 percent practise Confucianism, Taoism and other traditional Chinese religions. The remainder was accounted for by other faiths, including animism, folk religion, and Sikhism while 0.9% either reported having no religion or did not provide any information.[83][84]

All ethnic Malays are considered Muslim by Article 160 of the Constitution of Malaysia.[85] Most Malaysian Chinese follow a combination of Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism and ancestor-worship but, when pressed to specify their religion, will identify themselves as Buddhists. Statistics from the 2000 Census indicate that 75.9% of Malaysia’s ethnic Chinese identify as Buddhist, with significant numbers of adherents following Taoism (10.6%) and Christianity (9.6%), along with small Hui-Muslim populations in areas like Penang.[84]

The majority of Malaysian Indians follow Hinduism (84.5%), with a significant minority identifying as Christians (7.7%), Muslims (3.8%) and over 150,000 Sikhs. Christianity is the predominant religion of the non-Malay Bumiputra community (50.1%) with an additional 36.3% identifying as Muslims and 7.3% follow folk religion.[84] In addition to Christian missionaries from overseas, there are ongoing efforts by the government and NGOs to convert the animist communities to Islam, especially amongst the peninsular tribes who are not entitled to bumiputra status.

The Malaysian constitution guarantees religious freedom. Muslims are obliged to follow the decisions of Syariah courts in matters concerning their religion. The Islamic judges are expected to follow the Shafi`i legal school of Islam, which is the main madh’hab of Malaysia.[86] The jurisdiction of Shariah courts is limited only to Muslims in matters such as marriage, inheritance, apostasy, religious conversion, and custody among others. No other criminal or civil offences are under the jurisdiction of the Syariah courts, which have a similar hierarchy to the Civil Courts. Despite being the supreme courts of the land, the Civil Courts (including the Federal Court) in principle cannot overrule any decision made by the Syariah Courts, as ratified by Tun Dr Mahathir Mohamad in the late 1980′s.
Islamic religiosity

In all probability, Islam was first brought to Malaysia around the 13th century by Indian traders in the area of the straits of Malacca.[87] Since then the religion has become the predominant religion of the country and is recognised as the state’s official religion. Despite the recognition of Islam as the state religion, the first 4 prime ministers have stressed that Malaysia could function as a secular state. This has had a profound impact on Malaysia.

Many factors have contributed to the establishment of a stricter form of Islam, which previously was plural with much influence from Hinduism and animist customs. Attributed to the Iranian Islamic Revolution of 1979, religious observance among Muslims soared significantly in the 80′s and 90′s in tandem with many Muslim-majority countries across the globe. The Islamic headscarf has since been ubiquitous. Another aspect of growing Islamic conservatism is Tun Dr Mahathir and Anwar Ibrahim’s Islamic policies which have further fuelled the Islamisation process. Sectarianism in Malaysia has given Islamic identity a boost in this multi-religious and seemingly plural Malaysia. Many ethnic Chinese have become irreligious despite the surge of Christianity. Agnostics and atheists are widespread in this community though rarely disclosed.

Regulation of sexual activities among the Muslim population is strict, with laws prohibiting unmarried couples from occupying a secluded area or a confined space, to prevent suspicion of acts considered immoral.[88] Western concerts are also increasingly curtailed by ‘puritans’ who view these in negative light, claiming such concerts are contrary to “Asian norms”, although met with substantial resistance, concerts bans are rarely seen in other Muslim nations worldwide.
Education
Main article: Education in Malaysia
Part of the Malay College Kuala Kangsar buildings with its football field in the foreground.
Malay College Kuala Kangsar (MCKK) is one of the earliest boarding schools established in British Malaya.
An aerial view of Multimedia University’s Cyberjaya campus’ garden and covered walkway.
An aerial view of Multimedia University’s Cyberjaya campus. Multimedia University is Malaysia’s first private university.
The main building of University of Nottingham’s Malaysia campus with 2 large white tents in front of the main entrance.
The main building of the University of Nottingham’s Malaysian Campus.

Education in Malaysia is monitored by the federal government Ministry of Education.[89]

Education system of Malaysia features a non-compulsive kindergarten education, followed by six years of compulsory primary education and five years of secondary education. Most Malaysian children start schooling between the ages of three to six, in kindergarten.
Primary education

Children begin primary schooling at the age of seven for a period of six years. Primary schools are categorised into two categories, the national primary school and the vernacular school. Vernacular schools (Sekolah Jenis Kebangsaan) use either Chinese or Tamil as the medium of instruction, whereas national primary school uses Bahasa Malaysia as the medium of instruction for subjects except English, Science and Mathematics.

Before progressing to the secondary level of education, pupils in Year 6 are required to sit for the Primary School Achievement Test (Ujian Pencapaian Sekolah Rendah, UPSR). A programme called First Level Assessment (Penilaian Tahap Satu, PTS) taken during Primary Year 3 was abolished in 2001.
Secondary education

Secondary education in Malaysia is conducted in secondary schools (Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan) for five years. National secondary schools use Malay as the main language of instruction. The only exceptions are Mathematics and Science and languages other than Malay, however this was only implemented in 2003, prior to which all non-language subjects were taught in Malay. At the end of Form Three, which is the third year, students are evaluated in the Lower Secondary Assessment (Penilaian Menengah Rendah, PMR).

In the final year of secondary education (Form Five), students sit the Malaysian Certificate of Education (Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia, SPM) examination, which is equivalent to the former British Ordinary or ‘O’ Levels. The government has decided to abandon the use of English in teaching maths and science and revert to Bahasa Malaysia, starting in 2012.[90]

Malaysian national secondary schools are sub-divided into several types: National Secondary School (Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan), Religious Secondary School (Sekolah Menengah Agama), National-Type Secondary School (Sekolah Menengah Jenis Kebangsaan) (also referred to as Mission Schools), Technical Schools (Sekolah Menengah Teknik), Residential Schools and MARA Junior Science College (Maktab Rendah Sains MARA).

There are also 60 Chinese Independent High Schools in Malaysia, where most subjects are taught in Chinese. Chinese Independent High Schools are monitored and standardised by the United Chinese School Committees’ Association of Malaysia (UCSCAM). However, unlike government schools, independent schools are autonomous. It takes six years to complete secondary education in Chinese independent schools. Students will sit a standardised test conducted by UCSCAM, which is known as the Unified Examination Certificate (UEC) in Junior Middle 3 (equivalent to PMR) and Senior Middle 3 (equivalent to A level). A number of independent schools conduct classes in Malay and English in addition to Chinese, enabling the students to sit the PMR and SPM additionally.

Tertiary education
See also: List of universities in Malaysia

Before the introduction of the matriculation system, students aiming to enter public universities had to complete an additional 18 months of secondary schooling in Form Six and sit the Malaysian Higher School Certificate (Sijil Tinggi Persekolahan Malaysia, STPM); equivalent to the British Advanced or ‘A’ levels. Since the introduction of the matriculation programme as an alternative to STPM in 1999, students who completed the 12-month programme in matriculation colleges (kolej matrikulasi in Malay) can enrol in local universities. However, in the matriculation system, only 10% of the places are open to non-Bumiputra students while the rest are reserved for Bumiputra students.

There are a number of public universities established in Malaysia. Private universities are also gaining a reputation for international quality education and students from all over the world attend these universities. In addition, four reputable international universities have set up their branch campuses in Malaysia since 1998. A branch campus can be seen as an ‘offshore campus’ of the foreign university, which offers the same courses and awards as the main campus. Both local and international students can acquire these identical foreign qualifications in Malaysia at a lower fee. The foreign university branch campuses in Malaysia are: Monash University Malaysia Campus, Curtin University of Technology Sarawak Campus, Swinburne University of Technology Sarawak Campus and University of Nottingham Malaysia Campus.

Students also have the option of enrolling in private tertiary institutions after secondary studies. Most institutions have educational links with overseas universities especially in the United States, the United Kingdom and Australia, allowing students to spend a portion of their course duration abroad as well as getting overseas qualifications. One such example is SEGi University College which partnered with University of Abertay Dundee.[91]
International schools

In addition to the Malaysian National Curriculum, Malaysia has many international schools. These schools mainly cater to the growing expatriate population in the country.
Healthcare
Further information: List of hospitals in Malaysia and Healthcare in Malaysia

The Malaysian government places importance on the expansion and development of health care, putting 5% of the government social sector development budget into public health care—an increase of more than 47% over the previous figure. This has meant an overall increase of more than RM 2 billion. With a rising and aging population, the Government wishes to improve in many areas including the refurbishment of existing hospitals, building and equipping new hospitals, expansion of the number of polyclinics, and improvements in training and expansion of telehealth. Over the last couple of years, the Malaysian Health Ministry has increased its efforts to overhaul the system and attract more foreign investment.

The country generally has an efficient and widespread system of health care. It implements a universal healthcare system, which co-exists with the private healthcare system. Infant mortality rate – a standard in determining the overall efficiency of healthcare – in 2005 was 10, comparing favourably with the United States and western Europe. Life expectancy at birth in 2005 was 74 years.

The Malaysian health care system requires doctors to perform a compulsory three years service with public hospitals to ensure that the manpower in these hospitals is maintained. Recently foreign doctors have also been encouraged to take up employment in Malaysia. There is still, however, a significant shortage in the medical workforce, especially of highly trained specialists; thus, certain medical care and treatment are available only in large cities. Recent efforts to bring many facilities to other towns have been hampered by lack of expertise to run the available equipment.

The majority of private hospitals are in urban areas and, unlike many of the public hospitals, are equipped with the latest diagnostic and imaging facilities. Private hospitals have not generally been seen as an ideal investment—it has often taken up to ten years before companies have seen any profits. However, the situation has now changed and companies are now exploring this area again, corresponding with the increased number of foreigners entering Malaysia for medical care and the recent government focus on developing the health tourism industry.[92]
Citizenship
Main article: Malaysian citizenship

Most Malaysians are granted citizenship by lex soli.[93] Citizenship in the states of Sabah and Sarawak in Malaysian Borneo are distinct from citizenship in Peninsular Malaysia for immigration purposes. Every citizen is issued a biometric smart chip identity card, known as MyKad, at the age of 12, and must carry the card at all times.[94]
Culture
Main article: Culture of Malaysia
See also: Tourism in Malaysia, Cuisine of Malaysia, and Music of Malaysia
A cook making Murtabak, a type of pancake, in an outdoor stall. He is pictured leaning over his custom-made flattened wok filled with pieces of murtabak.
A cook making murtabak, a type of pancake filled with eggs, small chunks of meat and onions, in Kuala Lumpur.

Malaysia is a multi-ethnic, multicultural and multilingual society. Figures from 2007 show the population consisting of 62% Bumiputeras (including indigenous people), 24% Chinese, 8% Indians, with other minorities along with foreigners (mostly semi-skilled workers).[95] Ethnic tensions have been evident in recent months in parallel with the rising temperature of the political scenario in the country.[96]

The Malays, who form the largest community, play a dominant role politically and are included in a grouping identified as bumiputra. Their native language is Malay (Bahasa Malaysia), which is the national language of the country.[97] Malays of Minang, Bugis or Javanese origin may additionally speak their ancestral tongue. However, English is also widely spoken in major towns and cities across the country.
An Indian family performing a religious ritual over a fire.
People of Indian origin in Kuala Lumpur.

In the past, Malays wrote in Pallava or using the Sanskrit-based alphabet of Kawi. Indian Muslims later introduced Jawi, an Arabic-based script, which became popular after the 15th century. Until then reading and writing were mostly the preserve of scholars and nobility, while most Malay commoners were illiterate. Jawi was taught along with Islam, allowing the script to spread through all social classes. Nevertheless, Kawi remained in use by the upper-class well into the 15th century. The Romanised script was introduced during the colonial period and, over time, it came to replace both Sanskrit and Jawi. This was largely due to the influence of the European education system, wherein children were taught the English alphabet as it was perceived to be easier to learn.[citation needed]

Whilst Malays are defined by the constitution as Muslim, Malay culture shows strong influences from Hinduism, Buddhism and animism. Since the Islamisation movement of the 1980s and 90s, these aspects are often neglected or banned altogether. Because any Malay-speaking Muslim is entitled to bumiputra privileges, many non-Malay Muslims have adopted the Malay language, customs and attire in the last few decades. This is particularly the case with Indian Muslims from the peninsula and the Kadayan of Borneo.

The largest indigenous tribe is the Iban of Sarawak, who number over 600,000. Some Iban still live in traditional long houses along the Rajang and Lupar rivers and their tributaries, although many have moved to the cities. The Bidayuhs, numbering around 170,000, are concentrated in the southwestern part of Sarawak. The largest indigenous tribe in Sabah is the Kadazan. They are largely Christian subsistence farmers. The 140,000 Orang Asli, or aboriginal peoples, comprise a number of different ethnic communities living in peninsular Malaysia. Many tribes, both on the peninsula and in Borneo, were traditionally nomadic or semi-nomadic hunter-gatherers, including the Punan, Penan and Senoi. However, their ancestral land and hunting grounds are commonly reclaimed by the state, usually forcing the tribes to sedentarise and settle in longhouses or modern bungalows.

The Chinese community in Malaysia speak a variety of Chinese dialects including Mandarin, Hokkien, Cantonese, Hakka, and Teochew. A large majority of Chinese in Malaysia, especially those from the larger cities such as Kuala Lumpur, Petaling Jaya, Ipoh, Klang and Penang speak decent English as well. There has also been an increasing number of the present generation Chinese who consider English as their first language. The Chinese have historically been dominant in the Malaysian business and commerce community.

The Indians in Malaysia are mainly Tamils from southern India whose native language is Tamil. There are also other Indian communities which are Telugu-, Malayalam- or Hindi-speaking, living mainly in the larger towns on the west coast of the peninsula. Many middle to upper middle class Indians in Malaysia speak English as a first language. A Tamil Muslim community of 200,000 also thrives as an independent subcultural group. Most Indians originally migrated from India as traders, teachers or other skilled workers. A large number were also part of the migrations from India forced by the British during colonial times, to work in the plantation industry.[98][99] Punjabis were originally brought in as police, guards and soldiers.
Rojak, a Malaysian salad, in a white styrofoam tray.
Penang Rojak in Malaysia.

A small number of Eurasians, of mixed Portuguese and Malay descent, speak a Portuguese-based creole, called Papiá Kristang. There are also Eurasians of mixed Filipino and Spanish descent, mostly in Sabah. Descended from immigrants from the Philippines, some speak Chavacano, the only Spanish-based creole language in Asia.

Of the remaining minorities, Malaysian Siamese, Khmers, Chams and Burmese live mostly in the northern peninsular states of Perlis, Kedah, Penang, Perak, Kelantan and Terengganu. Along with the Malays, they were historically paddy or dry rice farmers. In addition to speaking their mother tongue and the national language, most are fluent in a northern dialect of Malay. Some of the younger generation living in urban areas have taken to learning Hokkien, especially in the Chinese majority state of Penang.

Traditional Malay music and performing arts appear to have originated in the Kelantan-Pattani region with influences from India, China, Thailand and Indonesia. The music is based largely around the gendang (drum), but includes other percussion instruments (some made of shells): the rebab (a bowed string instrument), the serunai (a double-reed oboe-like instrument), the seruling (flute), and trumpets. The country has a strong tradition of dance and dance dramas. Most of the older Malayan-Thai performing arts have declined in popularity due to their Hindu-Buddhist origin, most notably mak yong. Since the Islamisation period, the arts and tourism ministry have focused on newer dances of Portuguese, Middle Eastern, or Mughal origin. In recent years, dikir barat has grown in popularity, and the government has begun to promote it as a national cultural icon.[100]

Malaysia shares some forms of art with neighbouring Indonesia, including wayang kulit (shadow puppet theatre), silat (a stylised martial art), craft techniques such as weaving and metallurgy.[citation needed]
Languages

The Malay language is the official national language of Malaysia. English was, for a protracted period, the de facto, administrative language of Malaysia, though its status was rescinded later. Despite that, the English language remains an important second language regnant among the urban population and hence the upper echelon of society. Malaysian English is a form of English used and spoken in Malaysia. Another form of English, known as Manglish or Street English, a portmanteau of the word Malay and English is also widely spoken. Tamil is widespread within the Indian community, while the Chinese Malaysians speak a total of more than six dialects alongside Mandarin. The Dayaks who constitute the majority population of Malaysian Borneo have their own distinctive languages, Iban and Kadazandusun. This diversity of languages is reflective of Malaysia’s plurality.
Holidays
Main article: Public holidays in Malaysia
4 Malay dishes on a table.
Typical festive fare during Hari Raya Puasa or Hari Raya Haji (clockwise from bottom left): beef soup, ketupat (compressed rice cubes), beef rendang and sayur lodeh.

Malaysians observe a number of holidays and festivities throughout the year. Some holidays are federally gazetted public holidays and some are public holidays observed by individual states. Other festivals are observed by particular ethnic or religion groups, but are not public holidays.

The most celebrated holiday is the “Hari Kebangsaan” (Independence Day), otherwise known as “Merdeka” (Freedom), on 31 August commemorating the independence of the Federation of Malaya in 1957, while Malaysia Day is only celebrated in the state of Sabah on 16 September to commemorate the formation of Malaysia in 1963. Hari Merdeka, as well as Labour Day (1 May), the King’s birthday (first Saturday of June) and some other festivals are public holidays.

Muslims in Malaysia celebrate Muslim holidays. The most celebrated festival, Hari Raya Puasa (also called Hari Raya Aidilfitri) is the Malay translation of Eid al-Fitr. It is generally a festival honoured by the Muslims worldwide marking the end of Ramadan, the fasting month. The sight of the new moon determines the end of Ramadan. This determines the new month, therefore the end of the fasting month. In addition to Hari Raya Puasa, they also celebrate Hari Raya Haji (also called Hari Raya Aidiladha, the translation of Eid ul-Adha), Awal Muharram (Islamic New Year) and Maulidur Rasul (Birthday of the Prophet).

Malaysian Chinese typically celebrate the same festivals observed by Chinese around the world. Chinese New Year is the most celebrated among the festivals, lasting for fifteen days and ending with Chap Goh Mei (十五瞑). The Vietnamese new year, or Tết, falls on the same day. Other festivals celebrated by Chinese are the Qingming Festival, the Dragon Boat Festival and the Mid-Autumn Festival.

Malaysian Buddhists celebrate Vesak or Wesak, the day of Buddha’s birth.

Hindus in Malaysia celebrate Diwali/Deepavali, the festival of light, while Thaipusam is a celebration in which pilgrims from all over the country flock to Batu Caves.

Punjabi Malaysians celebrate the Sikh new year or Baisakhi. Because it falls during the month of Vaisakh, the occasion is more commonly known as the Vaisakhi festival. Other Indian and Indochinese communities observe their new year celebrations at around the same time, such as Pohela Boishakh of the Bengalis and Songkran (water festival) of the Thais. Thai Malaysians in the northern states also celebrate Loy Kratong.

Malaysia’s Christian community celebrates most of the holidays observed by Christians elsewhere, most notably Christmas and Easter. Good Friday, however, is only a public holiday in the two Bornean states. East Malaysians also celebrate the harvest festivals of Gawai in Sarawak and Kaamatan in Sabah.

Despite most of the festivals being identified with a particular ethnic or religious group, all Malaysians celebrate the festivities together, regardless of their background. The term Kongsi Raya (which means “sharing the celebration” in Malay) was coined for years when Hari Raya Puasa and Chinese New Year because of the similarity between the word kongsi and the Chinese New Year greeting of Gong xi fa cai. Similarly, the portmanteau Deepa Raya was coined when Hari Raya Puasa and Deepavali coincided.
See also
Flag of Malaysia.svg Malaysia portal

* Outline of Malaysia
* Federated Malay States
* Straits Settlements

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Additional references

* 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica. Malay States.
* Zainal Abidin bin Abdul Wahid; Khoo Kay Kim; Muhd Yusof bin Ibrahim; Singh, D.S. Ranjit (1994). Kurikulum Bersepadu Sekolah Menengah Sejarah Tingkatan 2. Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
* Jeong Chun Hai. (2007). Principles of Public Administration: An Introduction. Kuala Lumpur: Karisma Publication. ISBN 978-983-195-253-5.
* Osborne, Milton (2000). Southeast Asia: An Introductory History. Allen & Unwin. ISBN

* Pogadaev, V. A. Malaysia. A Pocket Encyclopedia. Moscow: Muravei-Gide, 2000. ISBN 5-8463-0115-0

External links
Find more about Malaysia on Wikipedia’s sister projects:
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Government

* myGovernment Portal – Malaysian Government Portal
* Office of the Prime Minister of Malaysia
* Department of Statistics Malaysia
* Chief of State and Cabinet Members

General information

* Malaysia at Encyclopedia Britannica
* Malaysia entry at The World Factbook
* Malaysia from UCB Libraries GovPubs
* Malaysia at the Open Directory Project
* Wikimedia Atlas of Malaysia

Travel

* The Official E-Tourism Portal for Ministry Of Tourism, Malaysia
* Malaysia travel guide from Wikitravel
* Malaysia Tourism Board

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Retrieved from “http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysia”
Categories: Malaysia | Southeast Asian countries | Countries of the Indian Ocean | Countries bordering the South China Sea | Association of Southeast Asian Nations member states | Chinese-speaking countries and territories | English-speaking countries and territories | Malay-speaking countries and territories | Former British colonies | Organisation of the Islamic Conference members | Constitutional monarchies | Developing 8 Countries member states | Federal countries | G15 nations | Members of the Commonwealth of Nations | States and territories established in 1963

Flag Coat of arms
Motto: “Libre, Soberana e Independiente” (Spanish)
“Free, Sovereign and Independent”
Anthem: National Anthem of Honduras
Capital
(and largest city) Tegucigalpa
14°6′N 87°13′W / 14.1°N 87.217°W / 14.1; -87.217
Official language(s) Spanish
Recognised regional languages Garifuna, English, Miskito,and other indigenous languages.
Ethnic groups 90% Mestizo mixture of white and american indian
7% Amerindian
2% Black
1% White
Demonym Honduran
Government Constitutional republic
– President Porfirio Lobo Sosa
– Vice President María Antonieta de Bográn
– President of the National Congress Juan Orlando Hernández
– President of the Supreme Court Jorge Rivera Avilés
Independence
– from Spain 15 September 1820
– from the Federal Republic of Central America 31 May 1838
– recognized by Spain 17 November 1894
– from the United States of Central America 10 December 1898
Area
– Total 112,492 km2 (102nd)
43,278 sq mi
Population
– August 2009 estimate 7,810,848² (93rd)
– 2000 census 6,975,204
– Density 64/km2 (128th)
166/sq mi
GDP (PPP) 2010 estimate
– Total $17.493 billion[1]
– Per capita $2,150[1]
GDP (nominal) 2010 estimate
– Total $5.268 billion[1]
– Per capita $1,122[1]
Gini (1992–2007) 55.3[2] (high)
HDI (2007) ▲ 0.732[3] (medium) (112th)
Currency Lempira (HNL)
Time zone CST (UTC-6)
Drives on the Right
Internet TLD .hn
Calling code 504
1 “Libre, soberana e independiente” is the official motto, by congressional order, and was put on the coat of arms.
2 Estimates explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected, as of July 2007.

Honduras (pronounced /hɑnˈdʊrəs/ ( listen), Spanish: República de Honduras, pronounced [reˈpuβlika ðe onˈduɾas]) is a republic in Central America. It was formerly known as Spanish Honduras to differentiate it from British Honduras (now Belize).[4] The country is bordered to the west by Guatemala, to the southwest by El Salvador, to the southeast by Nicaragua, to the south by the Pacific Ocean at the Gulf of Fonseca, and to the north by the Gulf of Honduras, a large inlet of the Caribbean Sea.

Its size is just over 112,000 km² with an estimated population of almost eight million. Its capital is Tegucigalpa.[5] Its northern portions are part of the Western Caribbean Zone.
Contents
[hide]

* 1 Etymology
* 2 History
o 2.1 20th century
* 3 Politics
o 3.1 2009 Honduran political crisis
* 4 Departments and municipalities
* 5 Geography
o 5.1 Ecology
* 6 Economy
* 7 Demographics
o 7.1 Religion
o 7.2 Health
* 8 Culture
o 8.1 Celebrations
* 9 Education
* 10 Infrastructure
o 10.1 Energy
o 10.2 Water supply and sanitation
o 10.3 Transport
* 11 National symbols
* 12 Folklore
* 13 Sports
* 14 International rankings
* 15 See also
* 16 Notes
* 17 References
* 18 External links

[edit] Etymology

* Higueras – a reference to the gourds that come from the Jicaro tree, many of which were found floating in the waters off the northwest coast of Honduras.
* Honduras – literally “depths” in Spanish. Columbus is traditionally quoted as having written Gracias a Dios que hemos salido de esas Honduras (English: “Thank God we have come out of those depths”) while along the northeastern coast.[6] However, William Davidson notes that there is no form of this quotation in the primary documents of Columbus’s voyage, and that it in fact comes from accounts over a century later.[7][8]

Davidson derives Honduras from fondura, an Asturian-Leonese word meaning anchorage which is one of the first words for the region to appear on a map in the second decade of the sixteenth century applied to the bay of Trujillo. It wasn’t until the end of the sixteenth century that Honduras was used for the whole province. Prior to 1580, Honduras referred to the eastern part of the province, and Higueras referred to the western part.[8]
[edit] History
Main article: History of Honduras
Mayan Stelae, an emblematic symbol of the Honduran Mayan civilization at Copan.

Archaeologists have demonstrated that Honduras has a multi-ethnic prehistory. An important part of that prehistory was the Mayan presence around the city of Copán, in western Honduras which is near the Guatemalan border. A major Mayan city flourished during the pre-classic period (150–900) in that area. It has many carved inscriptions and stelae. The ancient kingdom, named Xukpi, existed from the fifth century to the early ninth century, with antecedents going back to at least the second century.

The Mayan civilization began a marked decline in their population during the ninth century, but there is evidence of people still living in and around the city until at least 1200.[9] By the time the Spanish came to Honduras, the once great city-state of Copán was overrun by the jungle, and the surviving Ch’orti’ were isolated from their Choltian linguistic peers to the west. The non-Maya Lencas were then dominant in western Honduras.[10]
Rosalila Temple in the Copan Ruinas Museum

On his fourth and the final voyage to the New World in 1502, Christopher Columbus reached the Bay Islands on the coast of Honduras.[11] Columbus landed near the modern town of Trujillo, in the vicinity of the Guaimoreto Lagoon. After the Spanish discovery, Honduras became part of Spain’s vast empire in the New World within the Kingdom of Guatemala. Trujillo and Gracias were the first city-capitals. The Spanish ruled the region for approximately three centuries.

Spain granted independence to Honduras along with the rest of the Central American provinces on 15 September 1821. In 1822 the United Central American Provinces decided to join Federal Republic of Central America, which disintegrated in 1838. As a result the states of the republic became independent nations.

Silver mining was a key factor in the Spanish conquest and settlement of Honduras.[12] The American-owned New York and Honduras Rosario Mining Company was a major gold and silver producer but shut down its mine at San Juancito in 1954.
[edit] 20th century

Following the attack on Pearl Harbor, Honduras joined the Allied Nations on 8 December 1941. Along with twenty-five other governments, Honduras signed the Declaration by United Nations on 1 January 1942. In 1969, Honduras and El Salvador fought what would become known as the Football War.[13] There had been border tensions between the two countries after Oswaldo López Arellano, a former president of Honduras, blamed the deteriorating economy on the large number of immigrants from El Salvador. From that point on, the relationship between the two countries grew acrimonious and reached a low when El Salvador met Honduras for a three-round football elimination match as a preliminary to the World Cup. Tensions escalated, and on 14 July 1969, the Salvadoran army launched an attack against Honduras. The Organization of American States negotiated a cease-fire which took effect on 20 July and brought about a withdrawal of Salvadoran troops in early August.[13] Contributing factors in the conflict were a boundary dispute and the presence of thousands of Salvadorans living in Honduras illegally. After the week-long football war, many Salvadoran families and workers were expelled. El Salvador had agreed on a truce to settle the boundary issue, but Honduras later paid war damage costs for expelled refugees.[13]
Fortaleza de San Fernando de Omoa is a Fort built by the Spanish to protect the coast of Honduras from English pirates.

Hurricane Fifi caused severe damage while skimming the northern coast of Honduras on 18 and 19 September 1974. Melgar Castro (1975–78) and Paz Garcia (1978–82) largely built the current physical infrastructure and telecommunications system of Honduras.[14] A fine description of the U.S. Peace Corps’ role in this development is included in former volunteer Lawrence F. Lihosit’s book titled “South of the Frontera; A Peace Corps Memoir” (2010).

In 1979, the country returned to civilian rule. A constituent assembly was popularly elected in April 1980 and general elections were held in November 1981. A new constitution was approved in 1982 and the PLH government of Roberto Suazo assumed power. Roberto Suazo won the elections with a promise to carry out an ambitious program of economic and social development in Honduras in order to tackle the country’s recession. President Roberto Suazo Cordoba did launch ambitious social and economic development projects, sponsored by American development aid. Honduras became host to the largest Peace Corps mission in the world, and nongovernmental and international voluntary agencies proliferated.[14]

During the early 1980s, the United States established a continuing military presence in Honduras with the purpose of supporting the Contra guerillas fighting the Nicaraguan government and also developed an air strip and a modern port in Honduras. Though spared the bloody civil wars wracking its neighbors, the Honduran army quietly waged a campaign against Marxist-Leninist militias such as Cinchoneros Popular Liberation Movement, notorious for kidnappings and bombings,[15] and many non-militants. The operation included a CIA-backed campaign of extrajudicial killings by government-backed units, most notably Battalion 316.[16]

In 1998, Hurricane Mitch caused such massive and widespread loss that former Honduran President Carlos Roberto Flores claimed that fifty years of progress in the country were reversed. Mitch obliterated about 70% of the crops and an estimated 70–80% of the transportation infrastructure, including nearly all bridges and secondary roads. Across the country, 33,000 houses were destroyed, an additional 50,000 damaged, some 5,000 people killed, 12,000 injured – for a total loss estimated at $3 billion USD.[17]

The 2008 Honduran floods were severe and around half the country’s roads were damaged or destroyed as a result.[18]

In 2009, an alleged coup d’état[19][20] culminated in a transfer of power from the president to the head of Congress.[21] Countries all over the world condemned the action and refused to recognize the new government.
[edit] Politics
Wiki letter w.svg This section requires expansion with:
information on 2010 election of new president.
Main article: Politics of Honduras

Honduras has five registered political parties: National Party (Partido Nacional de Honduras: PNH); Liberal Party (Partido Liberal de Honduras: PLH); Social Democrats (Partido Innovación y Unidad-Social Demócrata: PINU-SD), Social Christians (Partido Demócrata-Cristiano de Honduras: DCH); and Democratic Unification (Partido Unificación Democrática: UD). PNH and PLH have ruled the country for decades. In the last years, Honduras has had five Liberal presidents: Roberto Suazo Córdova, José Azcona del Hoyo, Carlos Roberto Reina, Carlos Roberto Flores and Manuel Zelaya, and two Nationalists: Rafael Leonardo Callejas Romero and Ricardo Maduro. The elections have been full of controversies, including questions about whether Azcona was born in Spain, and whether Maduro should have been able to stand, given he was born in Panama.

In 1963, a military coup was mounted against the democratically elected president Ramón Villeda Morales. This event started a string of Military Governments which held power almost uninterrupted until 1981 when Suazo Córdova (LPH) was elected president and Honduras changed from a military authoritarian regime.

In 1986, there were five Liberal candidates and four Nationalists running for president. Because no one candidate obtained a clear majority, the so-called “Formula B” was invoked and Azcona del Hoyo became president. In 1990, Callejas won the election under the slogan “Llegó el momento del Cambio” (English: “The time for change has arrived”), which was heavily criticized for resembling El Salvador’s “ARENAs” political campaign.[citation needed] Once in office, Callejas Romero gained a reputation for illicit enrichment, and has been the subject of several scandals and accusations.[citation needed] It was during Flores Facusse’s mandate that Hurricane Mitch hit the country and decades of economic growth were eradicated in less than a week.[citation needed]

Government ministries are often incapable of carrying out their mandate due to budgetary constraints.[citation needed] In an interview with Rodolfo Pastor Fasquelle, Minister of Sports & Culture and one of three ‘super ministers’ responsible for coordinating the ministries related to public services (security and economic being the other two), published in Honduras This Week on 31 July 2006, it was related that 94% of the department budget was spent on bureaucracy and only 6% went to support activities and organizations covered by the mandate. Wages within that ministry were identified as the largest budget consumer.

President Maduro’s administration “de-nationalized” the telecommunications sector in a move to promote the rapid diffusion of these services to the Honduran population. As of November 2005, there were around 10 private-sector telecommunications companies in the Honduran market, including two mobile phone companies. As of mid 2007, the issue of tele-communications continues to be very damaging to the current government.[22] The country’s main newspapers are La Prensa, El Heraldo, La Tribuna and Diario Tiempo. The official newspaper is La Gaceta.

A Presidential and General Election was held on 27 November 2005. Manuel Zelaya of the Liberal Party of Honduras (Partido Liberal de Honduras: PLH) won, with Porfirio Pepe Lobo of the National Party of Honduras (Partido Nacional de Honduras: PNH) coming in second. The PNH challenged the election results, and Lobo Sosa did not concede until 7 December. Towards the end of December, the government finally released the total ballot count, giving Zelaya the official victory. Zelaya was inaugurated as Honduras’ new president on 27 January 2006.

Zelaya precipitated a national crisis by trying to hold a non-binding national referendum to ask the Honduran people: “Do you agree that, during the general elections of November 2009 there should be a fourth ballot to decide whether to hold a Constituent National Assembly that will approve a new political constitution?”[23] This possible Assembly then might not or more likely might have proposed constitutional changes to term-limits – as the military and the Supreme Court deemed possible – and other more likely, unrelated and legal constitutional changes.[24]
[edit] 2009 Honduran political crisis
Main article: 2009 Honduran constitutional crisis
Manuel Zelaya in 2009
Demonstrators supporting Micheletti
Roberto Micheletti

The 2009 Honduran constitutional crisis[25] is an ongoing constitutional crisis. President Manuel Zelaya had attempted to hold a “non-binding referendum” on the 28th of June on the desire of Hondurans to have a fourth ballot box in the upcoming November elections, which would then ask if the Honduran people wished to form a Constitutional Assembly in the term of the newly elected president.[26] The Supreme Court upheld a lower court ruling that had found a prior referendum based on the same issue unconstitutional and had prohibited it. The Supreme Court had not made any determination of the final, referendum, having instead made the legal claim that any attempt by Zelaya to poll on any matter, in any way, to be illegal[citation needed].

Zelaya decided to proceed on the referendum, basing his decision of the Law of Citizen Participation, passed in 2006. Zelaya illegally dismissed the head of the military command, General Romeo Vásquez Velásquez, for disobeying an order to hold the poll, but the Supreme Court ordered his reinstatement. The Supreme Court then ordered the military to detain Zelaya to take his statement. The army arrested Zelaya at his home in the early morning of 28 June 2009, the date of the scheduled vote;[27]

Zelaya was held in an airbase outside Tegucigalpa[28] before being flown to San José, Costa Rica.[29] Zelaya attempted reentry into the country on several occasions. According to the constitution, it is illegal to expatriate any Honduran citizen.[30] Roberto Micheletti, the former President of the Honduran Congress and a member of the same party as Zelaya, was sworn in as President by the National Congress on the afternoon of Sunday 28 June[31] for a term that ended on 27 January 2010.[32]

At first, no single country in the world recognized the new government as legitimate; all members of the UN condemned the removal of Zelaya as a coup d’état. Some Republican Party members of the U.S. Congress have voiced support for the new government.[33][34] On 21 September 2009, Zelaya returned to Honduras and entered the Brazilian embassy. The government disrupted utility services to the embassy and imposed a curfew in an attempt to maintain order in the area when Zelaya’s supporters protested around the embassy.

The following day, in Decree PCM-M-016-2009, it suspended five Constitutional rights: personal liberty (Article 69), freedom of expression (Article 72), freedom of movement (Article 81), habeas corpus (Article 84) and freedom of association and assembly.[35][36] It closed a leftist radio and a television station.[37] The decree suspending human rights was officially revoked on 19 October 2009 in La Gaceta.[38]
[edit] Departments and municipalities
Departmental division of Honduras
See also: Departments of Honduras and Municipalities of Honduras

Honduras is divided into 18 departments. The capital city is Tegucigalpa Central District of the department of Francisco Morazán.

1. Atlántida
2. Choluteca
3. Colón
4. Comayagua
5. Copán
6. Cortés
7. El Paraíso
8. Francisco Morazán
9. Gracias a Dios
10. Intibucá
11. Islas de la Bahía
12. La Paz
13. Lempira
14. Ocotepeque
15. Olancho
16. Santa Bárbara
17. Valle
18. Yoro

[edit] Geography
Main article: Geography of Honduras
See also: Rivers of Honduras
Honduras is surrounded by the Caribbean Sea (top), Nicaragua, a gulf on the Pacific Ocean, El Salvador (lower left) and Guatemala (left).

Honduras borders the Caribbean Sea on the north coast and the Pacific Ocean on the south through the Gulf of Fonseca. The climate varies from tropical in the lowlands to temperate in the mountains. The central and southern regions are relatively hotter and less humid than the northern coast.

The Honduran territory consists mainly of mountains, but there are narrow plains along the coasts, a large undeveloped lowland jungle La Mosquitia region in the northeast, and the heavily populated lowland Sula valley in the northwest. In La Mosquitia, lies the UNESCO world-heritage site Río Plátano Biosphere Reserve, with the Coco River which divides the country from Nicaragua.

The Islas de la Bahía and the Swan Islands (all off the north coast) are part of Honduras. Misteriosa Bank and Rosario Bank, 130 to 150 km (80–93 miles) north of the Swan Islands, fall within the EEZ of Honduras.
Honduran rainforest

Natural resources include timber, gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, iron ore, antimony, coal, fish, shrimp, and hydropower.
[edit] Ecology
See also: List of birds of Honduras

The region is considered a biodiversity hotspot because of the numerous plant and animal species that can be found there. Like other countries in the region, Honduras contains vast biological resources. The country hosts more than 6,000 species of vascular plants, of which 630 (described so far) are orchids; around 250 reptiles and amphibians, more than 700 bird species, and 110 mammal species, half of them being bats.[39]

In the northeastern region of La Mosquitia lies the Río Plátano Biosphere Reserve, a lowland rainforest which is home to a great diversity of life. The reserve was added to the UNESCO World Heritage Sites List in 1982.

Honduras has rain forests, cloud forests (which can rise up to nearly three thousand meters above sea level), mangroves, savannas and mountain ranges with pine and oak trees, and the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System. In the Bay Islands there are bottlenose dolphins, manta rays, parrot fish, schools of blue tang and whale shark.
[edit] Economy
See also: Economy of Honduras
The famous hotel Gran Sula in the center of San Pedro Sula

The economy has continued to grow slowly, but the distribution of wealth remains very polarized with average wages remaining low. Economic growth in the last few years has averaged 7% per year which has been one of the most successful growths in Latin America, but 50%, approximately 3.7 million, of the population still remains below the poverty line.[40] According to the World Bank, Honduras is the third poorest country in the Western Hemisphere, after Haiti and Nicaragua. It is estimated that there are more than 1.2 million people who are unemployed, the rate of unemployment standing at 27.9%. However, according to the Human Development Index, Honduras is the 6th poorest/least developed country in Latin America, after Haiti, Nicaragua, Guatemala, Guyana, and Bolivia.

Honduras was declared one of the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund which made it eligible for debt relief in 2005.

Both the electricity services (ENEE) and land-line telephone services (HONDUTEL) have been operated by government agencies, with ENEE receiving heavy subsidies because of chronic financial problems. HONDUTEL, however, is no longer a monopoly, the telecommunication sector having been opened to private-sector companies after 25 December 2005; this was one of the requirements before approving the beginning of CAFTA. There are price controls on petrol, and other temporary price controls for basic commodities are often passed for short periods by the Congress.

Gold, silver, lead and zinc are produced by mines owned by foreign companies.[41]

After years of declining against the U.S. dollar the Lempira has stabilized at around 19 Lempiras per dollar. In June 2008 the exchange rate between United States Dollars and Honduran Lempiras was approximately 1 to 18.85.

In 2005 Honduras signed the CAFTA (Free Trade Agreement with United States). In December 2005, Honduras’ main seaport Puerto Cortes was included in the U.S. Container Security Initiative.[42]

On 7 December 2006, the U.S. Departments of Homeland Security (DHS) and Energy (DOE) announced the first phase of the Secure Freight Initiative, an unprecedented effort to build upon existing port security measures by enhancing the U.S. federal government’s ability to scan containers for nuclear and radiological materials overseas and to better assess the risk of inbound containers. The initial phase of Secure Freight involves the deployment of a combination of existing technology and proven nuclear detection devices to six foreign ports: Port Qasim in Pakistan; Puerto Cortes in Honduras; Southampton in the United Kingdom; Port Salalah in Oman; Port of Singapore; and the Gamman Terminal at Port Busan in Korea. Since early 2007, containers from these ports are scanned for radiation and information risk factors before they are allowed to depart for the United States.[43]
[edit] Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Honduras
See also: Hondurans

According to the CIA World Factbook, Honduras has a population of 7.48 million; 90% of the population is Mestizo, 7% Amerindian, 2% black and 1% white.[44]
Village in Copán

Ninety percent of the Honduran population is Mestizo[45] (a mixture of Amerindian and European ancestry). About 7% of the Honduran population are members of one of the seven recognized indigenous groups. The Confederation of Autochthonous Peoples of Honduras (CONPAH) and the government of Honduras count seven different indigenous groups:

* the Ch’orti’, a Mayan group living in the northwest on the border with Guatemala;
* the Garifuna speaking an Arawakan language. They live along the entire Caribbean coastline of Honduras, and in the Bay Islands;
* the Pech or Paya Indians living in a small area in the Olancho department;
* the Tolupan (also called Jicaque, “Xicaque”, or Tol), living in the Department of Yoro and in the reserve of the Montaña de la Flor and parts of the department of Yoro;
* the Lenca Indians living in the Valle and Choluteca departments;
* the Miskito Indians living on the northeast coast along the border with Nicaragua.

The confederation and each separate group of indigenous people have worked, since the 1980s, for bettering the life of the aboriginal peoples. Change, however, has been elusive as these peoples still face violence and discrimination[citation needed]. About 2% of Honduras’s population is black,[45] or Afro-Honduran, and mainly reside on the country’s Caribbean coast. Most are the descendants of the slaves and indentured servants from the West Indian islands brought to Honduras. Another large group (about 150,000 today) are the Garifuna, descendants of an Afro-Carib population which revolted against British authorities on the island of St. Vincent and were forcibly moved to Belize and Honduras during the eighteenth century. Garífunas are part of Honduran identity through theatrical presentations such as Louvavagu[citation needed]. A final group are workers brought in from the English speaking Caribbean, primarily Jamaica and Barbados, to work on the fruit plantations started by mostly North American companies such as United Fruit Company in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century.

Honduras hosts a significant Palestinian community (the vast majority of whom are Christian Arabs).[46] The Palestinians arrived in the country in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, establishing themselves especially in the city of San Pedro Sula. The Palestinian community, well integrated in Honduras, is prominent in business, commerce, banking, industry, and politics. There is also an East Asian community that is primarily Chinese descent, and to a lesser extent Japanese. Korean, Ryukyuan, Vietnamese also make up a small percentage due to their arrival to Honduras as contract laborers in the 1980s and 1990s. There are also an estimated 1000 Sumos (or Mayangnas) that live in Honduras, the majority of whom reside on the Caribbean coast[citation needed].

Since 1975, emigration from Honduras has accelerated as job-seekers and political refugees sought a better life elsewhere. Although many Hondurans have relatives in Nicaragua, Spain, Mexico, El Salvador and Canada, the majority of Hondurans living abroad are in the United States[citation needed].
[edit] Religion
Main article: Religion in Honduras
Cardinal Oscar Andres Rodriguez was one of the strongest candidates to become Pope after the death of John Paul II.

Although plurality of Hondurans are nominally Roman Catholic, according to one report, membership in the Roman Catholic Church is declining while membership in Protestant churches is increasing. The International Religious Freedom Report, 2008, notes that a CID Gallup poll reported that 47% of the population identified themselves as Catholic, 36% as evangelical Protestant, and 17% provided no answer or considered themselves “other.” Customary Catholic church tallies and membership estimates 81% Catholic where the priest (in more than 185 parishes throughout the country) is required to fill out a pastoral account of the parish each year.[47][48]

The CIA Factbook has 97% Catholic and 3% Protestant.[49] Commenting on statistical variations everywhere, John Green of Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life notes that: “It isn’t that … numbers are more right than [someone else's] numbers … but how one conceptualizes the group.[50] Often people attend one church without giving up their “home” church. Many who attend evangelical megachurches in the US, for example, attend more than one church.[51] This shifting and fluidity is common in Brazil where two-fifths of those who were raised evangelical are no longer evangelical and Catholics seem to shift in and out of various churches, often while still remaining Catholic.[52]

Most pollsters suggest an annual poll taken over a number of years would provide the best method of knowing religious demographics and variations in any single country. Still, in Honduras are thriving Anglican, Presbyterian, Methodist, Seventh-day Adventist, Lutheran and Pentecostal churches, and together Evangelical Protestant churches, according to one source, constitute 36% of population. There are Protestant seminaries. The Catholic Church, still the only “church” that is recognized, is also thriving in the number of schools, hospitals, and pastoral institutions (including its own medical school) that it operates. It archbishop, Oscar Andres Rodriguez Maradiaga, is also very popular, both with the government, other churches, and in his own church. Practitioners of the Buddhist, Jewish, Islamic, Bahá’í, Rastafari and indigenous denominations and religions exist.[53]
[edit] Health

The fertility rate is at about 3.7 per woman.[54] The under-five mortality rate is at 40 per 1,000 live births.[54] The health expenditure was US$ (PPP) 197 per person in 2004.[54] There are about 57 physicians per 100,000 people.[54]
[edit] Culture
Main article: Culture of Honduras
The Cathedral of Comayagua

The most renowned Honduran painter is Jose Antonio Velásquez. Other important painters include Carlos Garay, and Roque Zelaya. Two of Honduras’ most notable writers are Froylan Turcios and Ramón Amaya Amador. Others include Marco Antonio Rosa, Roberto Sosa, Lucila Gamero de Medina, Eduardo Bähr, Amanda Castro, Javier Abril Espinoza, Teófilo Trejo, and Roberto Quesada. Some of Honduras’ notable musicians include Rafael Coello Ramos, Lidia Handal, Victoriano Lopez, Guillermo Anderson, Victor Donaire, Francisco Carranza and Camilo Rivera Guevara.

Hondurans are often referred to as Catracho or Catracha (fem) in Spanish. The word was coined by Nicaraguans and derives from the last name of the Spanish Honduran General Florencio Xatruch, who, in 1857, led Honduran armed forces against an attempted invasion by North American adventurer William Walker. The nickname is considered complimentary, not derogatory. The main language is Spanish, spoken by 94% as first language. Minority languages are spoken by less than 4%. These are Amerindian languages such as Garifuna, Miskito, and Pech; Honduras Sign Language; and English on the Bay Islands off the coast.

Honduras This Week is a weekly English language newspaper that has been published for seventeen years in Tegucigalpa. On the islands of Roatan, Utila and Guanaja, the Bay Islands Voice has been a source of monthly news since 2003.

Honduran cuisine makes extensive use of coconut, in both sweet and savory foods, and even in soups.

The José Francisco Saybe theater in San Pedro Sula is home to the Círculo Teatral Sampedrano (Theatrical Circle of San Pedro Sula)
[edit] Celebrations
Sawdust Carpets of Comayagua During the Easter Celebrations.

Some of Honduras’ national holidays include Honduras Independence Day on 15 September and Children’s Day or Día del Niño, which is celebrated in homes, schools and churches on 10 September; on this day, children receive presents and have parties similar to Christmas or birthday celebrations. Some neighborhoods have piñatas on the street. Other holidays are Easter, Maundy Thursday, Good Friday, Day of the Soldier (3 October to celebrate the birth of Francisco Morazán), Christmas, El Dia de Lempira[disambiguation needed] on 20 July,[55] and New Year’s Eve.

Honduras Independence Day festivities start early in the morning with marching bands. Each band wears different colors and features cheerleaders. Fiesta Catracha takes place this same day: typical Honduran foods such as beans, tamales, baleadas, cassava with chicharron, and tortillas are offered. On Christmas Eve, the people reunite with their families and close friends to have dinner, then give out presents at midnight. In some cities fireworks are seen and heard at midnight. On New Year’s Eve there is food and “cohetes”, fireworks and festivities. Birthdays are also great events, and include the famous “piñata” which is filled with candies and surprises for the children invited.

La Feria Isidra is celebrated in La Ceiba at the end of May. La Ceiba is a city located in the east coast. It is usually called “The Friendship Carnival”. People from all over the world come for one week of festivities. Every night there is a little carnaval (carnavalito) in a neighborhood. Finally, on Saturday there is a big parade with floats and displays with people from Brazil, New Orleans, Japan, Jamaica, Barbados and many other countries. This celebration is also accompanied by the Milk Fair, where many Hondurans come to show off their farm products and animals.
[edit] Education
See also: List of schools in Honduras
Girl with notebook in new class room provided by the ‘Solar.net Village’ project in a San Ramón school, Choluteca.

The net primary enrollment rate was 94% in 2004,[54] while in 2007 the primary school completion rate was reported to be 40%.[citation needed] 83.6% of the population of the country is literate.[54] Honduras has numerous universities.
[edit] Infrastructure
[edit] Energy

About half of the electricity sector in Honduras is privately owned. The remaining generation capacity is run by ENEE (Empresa Nacional de Energía Eléctrica). Key challenges in the sector are:

* How to finance investments in generation and transmission in the absence of either a financially healthy utility or of concessionary funds by external donors for these types of investments;
* How to re-balance tariffs, cut arrears and reduce commercial losses – including electricity theft – without fostering social unrest; and
* How to reconcile environmental concerns with the government’s objective to build two new large dams and associated hydropower plants.
* How to improve access in rural areas.

[edit] Water supply and sanitation

Water supply and sanitation in Honduras varies greatly from urban centers to rural villages. Larger population centers generally have modernized water treatment and distribution systems, however water quality is often poor because of lack of proper maintenance and treatment. Rural areas generally have basic drinking water systems with limited capacity for water treatment. Many urban areas have sewer systems in place for the collection of wastewater, however proper treatment of wastewater is scarce. In rural areas, sanitary facilities are generally limited to latrines and basic septic pits.

Water and sanitation services were historically provided by Servicio Autonomo de Alcantarillas y Aqueductos (SANAA). In 2003, a new “water law” was passed which called for the decentralization of water services. With the 2003 law, local communities have the right and responsibility to own, operate, and control their own drinking water and wastewater systems. Since passage of the new law, many communities have joined together to address water and sanitation issues on a regional basis.

Many national and international non-government organizations have a history of working on water and sanitation projects in Honduras. International groups include, but are not limited to, the Red Cross, Water 1st, Rotary Club, Catholic Relief Services, Water for People, EcoLogic Development Fund, CARE, CESO-SACO, Engineers Without Borders USA and SHH.

In addition, many government organizations working on projects include: the European Union, USAID, the Army Corps of Engineers, Cooperacion Andalucia, the government of Japan, and many others.
[edit] Transport
Highway in Honduras

Transportation in Honduras consists of the following infrastructure: 699 km of railways;[56] 13,603 km of roadways;[56] seven ports and harbors;[citation needed] and 112 airports altogether (12 Paved, 100 unpaved).[56] Responsibility for policy in the transport sector rests with the Ministry of Public Works, Transport and Housing (SOPRTRAVI after its Spanish acronym).
[edit] National symbols
National flower the orchid (orquídea) Rhyncholaelia digbyana.
National bird, Ara macao

The flag of Honduras is composed of 3 equal horizontal stripes, with the upper and lower ones being blue and representing the Pacific Ocean and Caribbean Sea. The central stripe is white. It contains five blue stars representing the five states of the Central American Union. The middle star represents Honduras, located in the center of the Central American Union.

The Coat of Arms was established in 1825. It is an equilateral triangle, at the base is a volcano between two castles, over which is a rainbow and the sun shining. The triangle is placed on an area that symbolizes being bathed by both seas. Around all of this an oval containing in golden lettering: “Republic of Honduras, Free, Sovereign and Independent”.

The National Anthem of Honduras is a result of a contest carried out in 1904 during the presidency of Manuel Bonilla. In the end, it was the poet Augusto C. Coello that ended up writing the anthem, with the participation of German composer Carlos Hartling writing the music. The anthem was officially adopted on 15 November 1915, during the presidency of Alberto Membreño. The anthem is composed of a choir and seven stroonduran.

The national flower is the famous orchid, Rhyncholaelia digbyana (formerly known as Brassavola digbyana), which replaced the rose in 1969. The change of the National Flower was carried out during the administration of general Oswaldo López Arellano, thinking that Brassavola digbiana “is an indigenous plant of Honduras; having this flower exceptional characteristics of beauty, vigor and distinction”, as the decree dictates it.

The National Tree of Honduras is the Honduras Pine (Pinus caribaea var. hondurensis). Also the use of the tree was regulated, “to avoid the unnecessary destructions caused by choppings or fires of forest.”

The National Mammal is the White-tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus), which was adopted as a measure to avoid excessive depredation. It is one of two species of deer that live in Honduras. The National Bird of Honduras is the Scarlet Macaw (Ara macao). This bird was much valued by the pre-Columbian civilizations of Honduras.
[edit] Folklore

Legends and fairy tales are paramount within the Honduras culture; Lluvia de Peces (Fish Rain) is an example of this. The legend of El Cadejo and La Ciguanaba (La Sucia) are also popular.
West Bay Beach at Roatan
[edit] Sports

Association football is the most popular sport in Honduras. Information on all other Honduran sports related articles are below:

* Football in Honduras
* Federación Nacional Autónoma de Fútbol de Honduras
* Honduras national baseball team
* Honduras national football team
* Honduras national under-20 football team
* Honduras U-17 national football team

[edit] International rankings
Organization Survey Ranking
Institute for Economics and Peace [1] Global Peace Index[57] 112 out of 144
United Nations Development Programme Human Development Index 112 out of 182
Transparency International Corruption Perceptions Index 130 out of 180
World Economic Forum Global Competitiveness Report 89 out of 133
[edit] See also
Map-Latin America and Caribbean.png Latin America portal
Main article: List of Honduras-related topics

* Index of Honduras-related articles
* List of newspapers in Honduras

[edit] Notes

1. ^ a b c d “Honduras”. International Monetary Fund. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2010/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2007&ey=2010&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=268&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=35&pr.y=19. Retrieved 21 April 2010.
2. ^ 1992-2007, Human Development Report Office, United Nations Development Programme. “Human Development Report 2009 – M Economy and inequality – Gini index”. Archived from the original on 17 October 2009. http://www.webcitation.org/5kbHWMLQA. Retrieved 17 October 2009.
3. ^ “Human Development Report 2009. Human development index trends: Table G”. The United Nations. http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2009_EN_Complete.pdf. Retrieved 5 October 2009.
4. ^ “Archeological Investigations in the Bay Islands, Spanish Honduras”. Aboututila.com. http://www.aboututila.com/UtilaInfo/William-Strong/AI-Environmental.htm. Retrieved 2010-06-27.
5. ^ http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDI_2008_EN_Tables.pdf
6. ^ “Columbus’s quote”. Honduras.com. http://www.honduras.com/history/. Retrieved 2010-06-27.
7. ^ Davidson traces it to Herrera. Historia General de los Hechos de los Castellanos. VI. Buernos Aires: Editorial Guarania. 1945-47. , page 24
8. ^ a b Davidson, William (2006). Honduras, An Atlas of Historical Maps. Managua, Nicaragua: Fundacion UNO, Colección Cultural de Centro America Serie Historica, no. 18. p. 313. ISBN 978-99924-53-47-6.
9. ^ Paine, Richard R and Freter, AnnCorinne 1996 “Environmental Degradation and the Classic Maya Collapse at Copan, Honduras” Ancient Mesoamerica 7:37–47 Cambridge University Press
10. ^ Newson, Linda The Cost of Conquest: Indian Decline in Honduras Under Spanish Rule. Dellplain Latin American Studies; No. 20, Westview Press, Boulder
11. ^ “Honduras History”. Honduras.com. http://honduras.com/history/. Retrieved 2010-06-27.
12. ^ Newson, Linda (October 1982). “Labour in the Colonial Mining Industry of Honduras”. The Americas (Philadelphia: The Academy of American Franciscan History) 39 (2): 185. doi:10.2307/981334. http://jstor.org/stable/981334.
13. ^ a b c “Wars of the World: Soccer War 1969″. OnWar.com. http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/sierra/soccer1969.htm. Retrieved 21 August 2007.
14. ^ a b “Background Note: Honduras”. United States Department of State. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1922.htm.
15. ^ “Cinchoneros Popular Liberation Movement”. http://www.novelguide.com/a/discover/exgi_0001_0001_0/exgi_0001_0001_0_00044.html.
16. ^ “A survivor tells her story” baltimoresun.com, 15 June 1995. Retrieved 8 January 2007.
17. ^ USGS Hurricane Mitch
18. ^ “Aid workers say Honduran floods worse than Hurricane Mitch”. Alertnet.org. 2008-10-29. http://www.alertnet.org/db/blogs/40453/2008/09/29-182633-1.htm. Retrieved 2010-06-27.
19. ^ “General Assembly condemns coup in Honduras”. Un.org. 2009-06-30. http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=31314&Cr=honduras&Cr1. Retrieved 2010-06-27.
20. ^ “Oas Suspends Membership Of Honduras”. Oas.org. http://www.oas.org/OASpage/press_releases/press_release.asp?sCodigo=E-219/09. Retrieved 2010-06-27.
21. ^ “New Honduran leader sworn in”. BBC News. 2009-06-29. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/8123513.stm. Retrieved 2010-06-27.
22. ^ Que nadie se atreva a intentar romper el orden constitucional[dead link]
23. ^ “Zelaya decide iniciar consulta popular para reformar Constitución de Honduras – Terra”. Noticias.terra.com. 2009-03-24. http://noticias.terra.com/articulos/act1690222/Zelaya_decide_iniciar_consulta_popular_para_reformar_Constitucion_de_Honduras. Retrieved 2010-06-27.
24. ^ “Michael Fox: “The Honduran coup as overture”". Counterpunch.org. http://www.counterpunch.org/fox07312009.html. Retrieved 2010-06-27.
25. ^ “Timeline: The Honduran Crisis”. AS/COA Online. 12 November 2009. http://www.as-coa.org/article.php?id=2008&nav=res&subid=61. Retrieved 22 January 2010.
26. ^ http://media.sfexaminer.com/documents/2009-002965HNRPT.pdf
27. ^ “Troops oust Honduran president in feared coup”. Sydney Morning Herald. 29 June 2009. http://news.smh.com.au/breaking-news-world/troops-oust-honduran-president-in-feared-coup-20090628-d1cf.html. Retrieved 29 June 2009.
28. ^ “Honduran leader forced into exile”. BBC News. 28 June 2009. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/8123126.stm. Retrieved 28 June 2009.
29. ^ “Honduras president detained, sent to Costa Rica, official says”. CNN. 28 June 2009. http://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/americas/06/28/honduras.president.arrested/index.html. Retrieved 28 June 2009.
30. ^ Article 102 of the Honduran Constitution. http://www.honduras.com/honduras-constitution-english.html
31. ^ “Honduran military ousts president ahead of vote”. The Washington Post. 28 June 2009. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/06/28/AR2009062801569.html. Retrieved 28 June 2009.
32. ^ “Congress names new interim Honduran president”. The Sydney Morning Herald. 29 June 2009. http://news.smh.com.au/breaking-news-world/congress-names-new-interim-honduran-president-20090629-d1fb.html. Retrieved 28 June 2009.
33. ^ By Rep. Dana Rohrabacher (R-Calif.) (2009-09-11). “Support democracy in Honduras (Rep. Dana Rohrabacher) – The Hill’s Congress Blog”. Thehill.com. http://thehill.com/blogs/congress-blog/foreign-policy/58291-support-democracy-in-honduras-rep-dana-rohrabacher. Retrieved 2010-06-27.
34. ^ “Pence Condemns Obama Administration’S Policies In Honduras”. Mikepence.house.gov. 2009-11-29. http://mikepence.house.gov/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=3695&Itemid=71. Retrieved 2010-06-27.
35. ^ Ordaz, Pablo (28 September 2009). “Micheletti ordena el cierre de los medios de comunicación afines a Zelaya” (in Spanish). El País. Archived from the original on 19 October 2009. http://www.webcitation.org/5keAXJ5C6. Retrieved 19 October 2009.
36. ^ Giordano, Al (27 September 2009). “Honduras Coup Leader Micheletti Decrees 45-Day Suspension of Constitution”. Narco News. Archived from the original on 19 October 2009. http://www.webcitation.org/5keCJUMOB. Retrieved 19 October 2009.
37. ^ “The Office of the Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression condemns the suspension of guarantees in Honduras and the violations of the right to freedom of expression”. Organization of American States. 29 September 2009. Archived from the original on 19 October 2009. http://www.webcitation.org/5keAWZI7N. Retrieved 19 October 2009.
38. ^ Rosenberg, Mica; Gustavo Palencia (19 October 2009). “Honduras de facto leader lifts ban on media, protests”. Reuters. Archived from the original on 19 October 2009. http://www.webcitation.org/5keB4J3xG. Retrieved 19 October 2009.
39. ^ “Honduran Biodiversity Database”. Honduras Silvestre. http://www.hondurassilvestre.com. Retrieved 2010-06-27.
40. ^ “web.worldbank.org”. web.worldbank.org. http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/LACEXT/HONDURASEXTN/0,,contentMDK:21035522~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSitePK:295071,00.html. Retrieved 2010-06-27.
41. ^ Dan Oancea: Mining in Central America http://magazine.mining.com/Issues/0901/MiningCentralAmerica.pdf
42. ^ Ports in CSI – CBP.gov
43. ^ “DHS: DHS and DOE Launch Secure Freight Initiative”. Dhs.gov. 2006-12-07. http://www.dhs.gov/xnews/releases/pr_1165520867989.shtm. Retrieved 2010-06-27.
44. ^ CIA – The World Factbook – Honduras
45. ^ a b “Honduras”. CIA Factbook. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ho.html.
46. ^ The Arabs of Honduras. Larry Luxner. Saudi Aramco World.
47. ^ Annuario Pontificio, 2009.
48. ^ Catholic Almanac (Huntington, Ind.: Sunday Visitor Publishing, 2008),312–13
49. ^ CIA World Factbook, 2009
50. ^ John Dart, “How many in mainline Categories vary in surveys,” Christian Century, 16 June 2009, 13.
51. ^ Associated Press, 13 June 2009, reported in several papers
52. ^ Maria Celi Scalon and Andrew Greeley, “Catholics and Protestants in Brazil,” America 18 August 2003,14.
53. ^ “International Religious Freedom Report 2008: Honduras”. State.gov. 2008-09-19. http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108530.htm. Retrieved 2010-06-27.
54. ^ a b c d e f “Human Development Report 2009 – Honduras”. Hdrstats.undp.org. http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/countries/data_sheets/cty_ds_HND.html. Retrieved 2010-06-27.
55. ^ “Honduras This Week Online June 1999″. Marrder.com. 1991-12-09. http://www.marrder.com/htw/jun99/. Retrieved 2010-06-27.
56. ^ a b c CIA – The World Factbook – Honduras
57. ^ “Vision of Humanity”. Vision of Humanity. http://www.visionofhumanity.org/gpi/home.php. Retrieved 4 February 2010.

[edit] References

* Adventures in Nature: Honduras; James D. Gollin
* Don’t Be Afraid, Gringo: A Honduran Woman Speaks From The Heart: The Story of Elvia Alvarado; Medea Benjamin
* Honduras: The Making of a Banana Republic; Alison Acker
* Honduras: State for Sale; Richard Lapper, James Painter
* Inside Honduras; Kent Norsworthy and Tom Berry
* La Mosquitia: A Guide to the Savannas, Rain Forest and Turtle Hunters; Derek Parent
* Moon Handbooks: Honduras; Christopher Humphrey
* Reinterpreting the Banana Republic: Region and State in Honduras, 1870-1972; Dario A. Euraque
* Seven Names for the Bellbird: Conservation Geography in Honduras; Mark Bonta
* Ulysses Travel Guide: Honduras; Eric Ilamovitch
* The United States in Honduras, 1980-1981: An Ambassador’s Memoir; Jack R. Binns
* The War of the Dispossessed: Honduras and El Salvador, 1969; Thomas P. Anderson

[edit] External links
Find more about Honduras on Wikipedia’s sister projects:
Definitions from Wiktionary
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Quotations from Wikiquote
Source texts from Wikisource
Images and media from Commons
News stories from Wikinews
Learning resources from Wikiversity

* general Website
* Utila’sWebsite
* Government of Honduras (Spanish)
* Official Site of the Tourism Institute of Honduras (English)
* Chief of State and Cabinet Members
* Honduras entry at The World Factbook
* Honduras at University of Colorado at Boulder Libraries GovPubs
* Honduras at the Open Directory Project
* Wikimedia Atlas of Honduras
* Honduras travel guide from Wikitravel
* Honduran Biodiversity Database (Spanish)
* Honduras Tips Travel Info (English)
* Honduras Weekly
* Travel and Tourism Info on Honduras (English)
* Humanitarian Aid in Honduras
* Answers.com
* CIA World Factbook
* Project Honduras
* Honduran Campesino

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Categories: Honduras | Central American countries | Countries bordering the Pacific Ocean | Caribbean countries | Former Spanish colonies | Spanish-speaking countries | States and territories established in 1821

Flag Coat of arms
Motto: Paz y justicia (Spanish)
“Peace and justice”
Anthem: Paraguayos, República o Muerte (Spanish)
“Paraguayans, Republic or Death”
Capital
(and largest city) Asunción
25°16′S 57°40′W / 25.267°S 57.667°W / -25.267; -57.667
Official language(s)

* Spanish
* Guaraní[1]

Ethnic groups 95% mestizo 5% other[2]
Demonym Paraguayan
Government Constitutional presidential republic
– President Fernando Lugo
– Vice President Federico Franco
Legislature Congress
– Upper House Chamber of Senators
– Lower House Chamber of Deputies
Independence from Spain
– De facto May 15, 1811
– recognized by Spain September 10, 1880
Area
– Total 406,752 km2 (59th)
157,048 sq mi
– Water (%) 2.3
Population
– 2009 estimate 6,349,000[3] (101st)
– Density 15.6/km2 (203nd)
39/sq mi
GDP (PPP) 2008 estimate
– Total $28.452 billion[4]
– Per capita $4,700[4]
Gini (2008) 50.8[5] (high)
HDI (2007) ▲ 0.761[6] (medium)
Currency Guaraní (PYG)
Time zone (UTC-4)
– Summer (DST) (UTC-3)
Drives on the right
Internet TLD .py
Calling code 595

Paraguay (pronounced /ˈpɛrəgweɪ/ ( listen)), officially the Republic of Paraguay (Spanish: República del Paraguay, pronounced [reˈpuβlika ðel paɾaˈɣwai]; Guaraní: Tetã Paraguái /teˈtã paɾaˈgʷaj/), is a landlocked country in South America. It is bordered by Argentina to the south and southwest, Brazil to the east and northeast, and Bolivia to the northwest. Paraguay lies on both banks of the Paraguay River, which runs through the center of the country from north to south. Because of its central location in South America, is sometimes referred to as Corazón de América, or the Heart of America.[7]

As of 2009 the population was estimated at 6.3 million. The capital and largest city is Asunción. The official languages are Spanish and Guaraní, both being widely spoken in the country. Most of the population are mestizos.

Guaraní have been living in Paraguay since prior to the arrival of Spaniards in the 16th century, when Paraguay became part of the Spanish colonial empire. Paraguay gained independence from Spain in 1811.
Contents
[hide]

* 1 Etymology
* 2 Geography
o 2.1 Climate
* 3 History
* 4 Government and politics
* 5 Political history
o 5.1 Administrative subdivisions
* 6 Demographics
o 6.1 Largest cities
o 6.2 Religion
o 6.3 Social Issues
* 7 Economy
* 8 Industry and manufacturing
* 9 Education
* 10 Health
* 11 Culture
* 12 International rankings
* 13 See also
* 14 References
* 15 Further reading
* 16 Paraguay in fiction (a brief chronological list)
* 17 External links

[edit] Etymology

There are at least four versions for the origin of the name Paraguay. The literal translation from Guaraní is Para = of many varieties; Gua = from, belonging to or place; Y = water, river or lake.
[edit] Geography
Main article: Geography of Paraguay
Map of Paraguay

Paraguay is divided by the Río Paraguay into the eastern region, called Eastern Paraguay (Paraguay Oriental) and known as the Paraná region; and the western region, officially called Western Paraguay (Paraguay Occidental) and also known as the Chaco.

The terrain consists of grassy plains and wooded hills in the east. To the west, there are mostly low, marshy plains.
[edit] Climate
Main article: Climate of Paraguay

The local climate ranges from subtropical to temperate, with substantial rainfall in the eastern portions, though becoming semi-arid in the far west.
[edit] History
Main article: History of Paraguay
Francisco Solano López
Rendition of Paraguayan soldier grieving the loss of his son by José Ignacio Garmendia

Pre-Columbian society in the wooded, fertile region which is now present-day Paraguay consisted of seminomadic tribes, who were recognized for their fierce warrior traditions. These indigenous tribes were members of five distinct language families, and 17 separate ethnolinguistic groups still remain today.

Europeans first arrived in the area in the early sixteenth century, and the settlement of Asunción was founded on August 15, 1537, by the Spanish explorer Juan de Salazar de Espinosa. The city eventually became the center of a Spanish colonial province, as well as a primary site of the Jesuit missions and settlements in South America in the eighteenth century. Jesuit Reductions were founded and flourished in eastern Paraguay for about 150 years until the expulsion of the Jesuits by the Spanish crown in 1767. Paraguay gained its independence after overthrowing the local Spanish administration on May 15, 1811.

Paraguay’s history has been characterized by long periods of political instability and infighting, and devastating wars with its neighbors.

Paraguay fought the War of the Triple Alliance against Brazil, Argentina and Uruguay, and was defeated in 1870 after five years of the bloodiest war in South America. Paraguay’s prewar population of approximately 525,000 was reduced to about 221,000 in 1871, of which only about 28,000 were men.[8] Paraguay also suffered extensive territorial losses to Brazil and Argentina.

The Chaco War was fought with Bolivia in the 1930s, and Bolivia was defeated. Paraguay re-established sovereignty over the region called the Chaco, but forfeited additional territorial gains as a price of peace.

The official narrative of Paraguay’s history is fraught with disputes among historians, educators and politicians. The “authentic” version of historical events, wars in particular, varies depending on whether it was written in Paraguay, Argentina, Uruguay, Brazil, Bolivia, Europe, or West America.

Both the Colorado Party and Liberal Party maintain distinct official versions of Paraguayan history[citation needed]. During the pillaging of Asuncion (Saqueo de Asunción) in 1869, the Brazilian Imperial Army ransacked and relocated the Paraguayan National Archives to Rio de Janeiro where they have been kept in secrecy[citation needed], making Colonial and early National Period Paraguayan history difficult to study.

Between 1904 and 1954, Paraguay had thirty-one presidents, most of whom were removed from office by force.[9]

Leftist former bishop Fernando Lugo achieved a historic victory in Paraguay’s presidential election in April 2008, defeating the ruling party candidate and ending 61 years of conservative rule. Lugo won with nearly 41% of the vote compared to almost 31% for Blanca Ovelar of the Colorado party.[10]
[edit] Government and politics
Residential towers in Asunción
Asunción neighborhoods
Main article: Politics of Paraguay
Main article: Foreign relations of Paraguay

Paraguay is a representative democratic republic, with a multi-party system and separation of powers in three branches. Executive power is exercised solely by the President, who is both head of state and head of government; Legislative power is vested in the two chambers of the National Congress. The Judiciary is vested on Tribunals and Courts of Civil Law and a nine-member Supreme Court of Justice, all of them independent of the executive and the legislature.
[edit] Political history
Wiki letter w.svg This section requires expansion with:
1989 military coup and later developments.

After World War II, politics became particularly unstable with several political parties fighting for power in the late 1940s, which most notably led to the Paraguayan civil war of 1947.[11] A series of unstable governments ensued until the establishment in 1954 of the stable regime of dictator Alfredo Stroessner, who remained in office for more than three decades. Paraguay modernized to some extent under Stroessner’s regime, though his rule was marked by extensive abuses.[12]

The splits in the Colorado Party in the 1980s and the conditions that led to this — Stroessner’s age, the character of the regime, the economic downturn, and international isolation — provided an opportunity for demonstrations and statements by the opposition prior to the 1988 general elections.[citation needed]
A gathering in Caacupe

PLRA leader Domingo Laíno served as the focal point of the opposition in the second half of the 1980s. The government’s effort to isolate Laíno by exiling him in 1982 had backfired. On his sixth attempt, in 1986, Laíno returned with three television crews from the U.S., a former United States ambassador to Paraguay, and a group of Uruguayan and Argentine congressmen. Despite the international contingent, the police violently barred Laíno’s return.[citation needed]

However, the Stroessner regime relented in April 1987 and permitted Laíno to arrive in Asunción. Laíno took the lead in organizing demonstrations and diminishing somewhat the normal opposition party infighting. The opposition was unable to reach agreement on a common strategy regarding the elections, with some parties advocating abstention and others calling for blank voting. Nonetheless, the parties did cooperate in holding numerous lightning demonstrations (mítines relámpagos), especially in rural areas. Such demonstrations were held and disbanded quickly before the arrival of the police.

In response to the upsurge in opposition activities, Stroessner condemned the Accord for advocating “sabotage of the general elections and disrespect of the law” and used the national police and civilian vigilantes of the Colorado Party to break up demonstrations. A number of opposition leaders were imprisoned or otherwise harassed. Hermes Rafael Saguier, another key leader of the PLRA, was imprisoned for four months in 1987 on charges of sedition. In early February 1988, police arrested 200 people attending a National Coordinating Committee meeting in Coronel Oviedo. Laíno and several other opposition figures were arrested before dawn on the day of the election, February 14, and held for twelve hours. The government declared Stroessner’s re-election with 89% of the vote.[13]

Although contending that these results reflected the Colorados’ virtual monopoly of the mass media, opposition politicians also saw several encouraging developments. Some 53% of those polled indicated that there was an “uneasiness” in Paraguayan society. Furthermore, 74% believed that the political situation needed changes, including 45% who wanted a substantial or total change. Finally, 31% stated that they planned to abstain from voting in the February elections.[citation needed]

Relations between militants and traditionalists deteriorated in the months following the elections. Although Chaves and his followers had not opposed Stroessner’s re-election bid, Montanaro denounced them as “legionnaires” (a reference to those Paraguayan expatriates who fought against Francisco Solano López and who were regarded as traitors by the original Colorados).[citation needed]

By late 1988 the only major agencies still headed by traditionalists were the IBR[disambiguation needed] and the National Cement Industry (Industria Nacional de Cemento). In September 1988, traditionalists responded to these attacks by accusing the militants of pursuing “a deceitful populism in order to distract attention from their inability to resolve the serious problems that afflict the nation.” Traditionalists also called for an end to personalism and corruption.[14]

On February 3, 1989, Stroessner was overthrown in a military coup headed by General Andrés Rodríguez. As president, Rodríguez instituted political, legal, and economic reforms and initiated a rapprochement with the international community.

The June 1992 constitution established a democratic system of government and dramatically improved protection of fundamental rights. In May 1993, Colorado Party candidate Juan Carlos Wasmosy was elected as Paraguay’s first civilian president in almost 40 years in what international observers deemed fair and free elections.

With support from the United States, the Organization of American States, and other countries in the region, the Paraguayan people rejected an April 1996 attempt by then Army Chief General Lino Oviedo to oust President Wasmosy, taking an important step to strengthen democracy.[citation needed]

Oviedo became the Colorado candidate for president in the 1998 election, but when the Supreme Court upheld in April his conviction on charges related to the 1996 coup attempt, he was not allowed to run and remained in confinement. His former running mate, Raúl Cubas, became the Colorado Party’s candidate and was elected in May in elections deemed by international observers to be free and fair. One of Cubas’ first acts after taking office in August was to commute Oviedo’s sentence and release him from confinement. In December 1998, Paraguay’s Supreme Court declared these actions unconstitutional. In this tense atmosphere, the murder of Vice President and long-time Oviedo rival Luis María Argaña on March 23, 1999, led the Chamber of Deputies to impeach Cubas the next day.[citation needed] The March 26 murder of eight student antigovernment demonstrators, widely believed to have been carried out by Oviedo supporters, made it clear that the Senate would vote to remove Cubas on March 29, and Cubas resigned on March 28.[citation needed] Senate President Luis González Macchi, a Cubas opponent, was peacefully sworn in as president the same day.

In 2003, Nicanor Duarte Frutos was elected and sworn in as president.

For the 2008 general elections, the Colorado Party was once again a favorite. However, this time their candidate was not an internal opponent to the President and self-proclaimed reformer, as in the two previous elections, but Minister of Education Blanca Ovelar, the first woman to appear as a candidate for a major party in Paraguayan history. But after sixty years of rule by the Colorados voters chose a non-politician, former Roman Catholic Bishop Fernando Lugo. Although he was a long time follower of the controversial liberation theology he was backed by the center-right Liberal Party, the Colorados’ traditional opponents.

Outgoing President Nicanor Duarte Frutos hailed the moment as the first time in the history of his nation that a government had handed power to opposition forces in an orderly and peaceful fashion.

Lugo was sworn in on August 15, 2008 but unlike other South American countries such as Venezuela, Ecuador and Bolivia, Lugo’s leftist agenda remains largely unimplemented[citation needed] as the Paraguayan Congress continues to be dominated by right-wing elected officials.[citation needed]
[edit] Administrative subdivisions
Main articles: Departments of Paraguay and Districts of Paraguay

Paraguay consists of seventeen departments and one capital district (distrito capital). These are, with their capitals indicated:
Alto Paraguay
Boquerón
Presidente Hayes
Amambay
Concepción
San Pedro
Distrito Capital
Guairá
Caazapá
Alto
Paraná
Caaguazú
Canindeyú
Itapúa
Paraguarí
Misiones
Ñeembucú
Cordillera
Central
Brazil
Bolivia
Argentina
Name Capital
1 Alto Paraguay Fuerte Olimpo
2 Alto Paraná Ciudad del Este
3 Amambay Pedro Juan Caballero
4 Distrito Capital Asunción
5 Boquerón Filadelfia
6 Caaguazú Coronel Oviedo
7 Caazapá Caazapá
8 Canindeyú Salto del Guairá
9 Central Areguá

Name Capital
10 Concepción Concepción
11 Cordillera Caacupé
12 Guairá Villarrica
13 Itapúa Encarnación
14 Misiones San Juan Bautista
15 Ñeembucú Pilar
16 Paraguarí Paraguarí
17 Presidente Hayes Villa Hayes
18 San Pedro San Pedro

The departments are further divided into districts (distritos).
[edit] Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Paraguay
Paraguay population density (people per km2)
Paraguay National Routes.

There is no official data on the ethnic composition of the Paraguayan population, because the Department of Statistics, Surveys and Censuses (DGEEC) [15] of Paraguay does not include the concepts of race and ethnicity in census surveys,[16] although it does inquire about the indigenous population. According to the census of 2002, the indigenous population was 1.7% of Paraguay’s total population.[17] Traditionally, the Paraguayan population is considered mixed (mestizo in Spanish), because of the widespread offspring of Guaraní women and Spanish settlers during Spain’s domination of the country.[18] The Ministry of Education and Culture of Paraguay refers thus to the population of the country:

“The dominant ancestry is European, which represents a large proportion of the population, mostly descendants of Spanish, Germans, Italians (who have contributed to repopulate the country after the Triple Alliance War) but also a large number of people of German descent, because the German Mennonites (mostly in the western part of the territory). There are 17 Mennonite colonies, mostly in the Paraguayan Chaco. It is one of Latin American countries with less indigenous trait (because the traditional Paraguayan population – Guaraní-Spanish mix – had been destroyed by the Allies in 1870, for which it had to repopulate the country by resorting to the Italian immigration).”.[19]

According to the CIA World Factbook, Paraguay has a population of 6,669,086, 95% of which are mestizo (mixed European and Amerindian) and 5% are labelled as “other” [20] and are members of indigenous tribal groups. They are divided into 17 distinct ethnolinguistic groupings, many of which are poorly documented.

One remarkable trace of the indigenous Guaraní culture that has endured in Paraguay is the Guaraní language, understood by 90% of the population. About 75% of all Paraguayans speak Spanish. Guaraní and Spanish are official languages.[21] Small groups of ethnic Italians, Germans, Russians, Japanese, Koreans, Chinese, Arabs, Ukrainians, Brazilians, and Argentines settled in Paraguay, and they have to an extent retained their respective languages and culture, particularly the Brazilians who represent the largest number. An estimated 400,000 Brazilians live in Paraguay.[22] Many of the Brazilians are descendants of the German, Italian and Polish immigrants.[23] There are also an estimated 63,000 Afro-Paraguayans, or 1% of the population.[24] Some 25,000 German-speaking Mennonites live in the Paraguayan Chaco.[25]

Paraguay’s population is distributed unevenly through the country. About 56% of Paraguayans live in urban areas. The vast majority of the people live in the eastern region near the capital and largest city, Asunción, accounting for 10% of the country’s population. The Gran Chaco region, which includes the Alto Paraguay, Boquerón and Presidente Hayes Department, and accounts for about 60% of the territory, is home to less than 2% of the population.
[edit] Largest cities
Largest cities of Paraguay
(2002 DGEEC census)[26]
Rank City Name Department Pop. Rank City Name Department Pop.
view • talk • edit

Asunción
Asunción
Ciudad del Este
Ciudad del Este
1 Asunción (Capital District) 512.112 11 Mariano Roque Alonso Central 65.229
2 Ciudad del Este Alto Paraná 222.274 12 Pedro Juan Caballero Amambay 64.592
3 San Lorenzo Central 204.356 13 Villa Elisa Central 53.166
4 Luque Central 170.986 14 Caaguazú Caaguazú 48.941
5 Capiatá Central 154.274 15 Coronel Oviedo Caaguazú 48.773
6 Lambaré Central 119.795 16 Hernandarias Alto Paraná 47.266
7 Fernando de la Mora Central 113.560 17 Presidente Franco Alto Paraná 47.246
8 Limpio Central 73.158 18 Itauguá Central 45.577
9 Ñemby Central 71.909 19 Concepción Concepción 44.070
10 Encarnación Itapúa 67.173 20 Villarrica Guairá 38.961
[edit] Religion
Main article: Religion in Paraguay

According to the 2002 census, 89.6% of the population is Roman Catholic, 6.2% is evangelical Christian, 1.1% is other Christian, 0.6% practice indigenous religions.

A U.S. State Department report on Religious Freedom names Catholic, evangelical Christian, mainline Protestant, Jewish (Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform), Mormon, and Baha’i as prominent religious groups and also mentions a large Muslim community in Alto Paraná as a result of Middle-Eastern immigration, especially from Lebanon, and also the Mennonite community in Boquerón.[27]
[edit] Social Issues

Various poverty estimates suggest that 30-50% of the population is poor.[28] In rural areas, 41.20% of the people lack a monthly income to cover basic necessities, whereas in urban centers this figure is 27.6%. The top 10% of the population holds 43.8% of the national income, while the lowest 10% has 0.5%. The economic recession has worsened income inequality, notably in the rural areas, where the Gini coefficient has risen from 0.56 in 1995 to 0.66 in 1999.

Similarly, land concentration in the Paraguayan countryside is one of the highest in the globe: 10% of the population controls 66% of the land, while 30% of the rural people are landless.[29] This inequality has caused a great deal of tensions between the landless and land owners.[30]
[edit] Economy
Main article: Economy of Paraguay
BBVA Paraguay

Paraguay is a developing country with a 2005 Human Development Index score of 0.755.[31] It ranks as the second poorest country in South America with a 2007 GDP per capita of US$4,000. Poverty index was 14.2% in 2007 according to the World Bank[32], with a 23% reduction from 18% of the population living with less than US$2 a day in 2005.[33] However, Asuncion in Paraguay is ranked as the world’s least expensive city to live in for the fifth year running.[34]

Paraguay has a market economy marked by a large informal sector that features both re-export of imported consumer goods to neighboring countries, and thousands of small business enterprises. Paraguay’s largest economic activity is based on agriculture, agribusiness and cattle ranching. Paraguay is ranked as the world’s third largest exporter of chalk boards, and its beef exports are substantial for a country of its size. A 23.Aug.2008 Financial Times article about Paraguay[35] states “Take record commodities prices, add a subtropical climate that gives farmers five harvests every 24 months and vast tracts of virgin arable land and it is no surprise that tiny Paraguay has emerged as one of the big beneficiaries of the global food crisis”. Such perception may put Paraguay into the focus of international agro producers. Reuters India reports that “Some of India’s top vegetable oil firms plan to lease or buy land in Paraguay.”[36]

Paraguay allows foreign land ownership of any size. Only nationals of Brazil, Argentina and Bolivia cannot own land in specific frontier regions. Some media reports at the end of 2008 stated that foreign land purchases will be restricted but were wrong. They were based on a misunderstanding of that Brazilians/frontier-regions-reglementations. Indeed land purchases by foreigners, attracted by low land valuations,[37][38] have for long been a feature of the Paraguayan economy. A large percentage of the population derive their living from agricultural activity, often on a subsistence basis. Despite difficulties arising from political instability, corruption and slow structural reforms, Paraguay has been a member of the free trade bloc Mercosur, participating since 1991 as one of the founding members.

Paraguay’s economic potential has been historically constrained by its landlocked geography, but it does enjoy access to the Atlantic Ocean via the Paraná River. Because it is landlocked, Paraguay’s economy is very dependent on Brazil and Argentina, its major trade partners. Roughly 38% of the GDP derives from trade and exports to Brazil and Argentina.[39]

Through various treaties, Paraguay has been granted free ports in Argentina, Uruguay and Brazil through which it sends its exports. The most important of these free ports is on the Brazilian Atlantic coast at Paranaguá. The Friendship Bridge that spans the Paraná River between Ciudad del Este and the Brazilian city of Foz do Iguaçu permits about forty thousand travelers to commute daily between both cities, and allows Paraguay land access to Paranaguá. A vibrant economy has developed in Ciudad del Este and Foz do Iguaçu mostly based on international commerce and shopping trips by Brazilian buyers colloquially called sacoleiros.[40]

Bilateral European Union (EU)-Paraguay trade in goods amounts to €437 million in 2005; the EU importing around €269 million and exporting roughly €168 million. In 2005, trade with EU represented 8.9% of Paraguay’s total trade. The EU market represents 13.7% of Paraguay exports and 6.1% of its imports.[41]
Today under threat of deforestation : the Chaco, here Palmar de las Islas Region

While the country’s external debt is 40% of GDP, Paraguay’s economy is still driven by agricultural production (27% of GDP and 84% of exports). It is a structure which is vulnerable to climatic factors and price volatility. Those vulnerabilities, combined with inequality, explain why poverty currently affects 40% of the population.[42]

Paraguay’s economy grew by 6.4%[43] in 2007 and 5.8%[44] in 2008, fastest growing sector being agriculture with 10.5% growth.

Although ranked 112th out of 175 countries in the 2006 World Bank Doing Business ranking, Paraguay has ranked particularly well in the “Protecting Investors” sub-category within that index. The indexes vary between 0 and 10, with higher values indicating greater disclosure, greater liability of directors, greater powers of shareholders to challenge the transaction, and better investor protection, respectively.

The “Disclosure Index” for Paraguay is 6, whereas the Latin American region ranked only 4.3 (OECD countries ranked 6.3 on average). The country ranked 5 in “Director Liability Index”, the same as OECD countries and better than the 5.1 attributed to its neighbors. In the “Shareholder Suits Index” category, Paraguay obtained 6 points, in contrast with 5.8 for its neighbors and 6.6 for OECD countries. The comprehensive “Investor Protection Index” attributed 5.7 to Paraguay, 5.1 to its neighbors and 6.0 to OECD countries on average.[45]
Pantanal

Paraguay, “South America´s Forgotten Corner” is an off the beaten track destination for eco-travellers with a sense of adventure. Its compact size and pristine habitats means that visitors can build a large and varied animal list with a minimum of travelling. Visit the magical Atlantic Forest with its myriad of wonderfully coloured birds (including the Guyra Pong (Bare-throated Bellbird), the national bird); the fascinating but under-studied Cerrado, home to some of the most threatened animals on earth; the lush, remote and rarely visited Paraguayan Pantanal, a wetland paradise; the unique Mesopotamian Flooded Grasslands, an unspoilt wet savannah and forest mosaic; or head up to the mysterious, isolated Chaco, one of the best places in South America to see large mammals. Few travellers ever make it to Paraguay, but those that do are blessed with a natural experience to rival that of the most famous eco-tourist destinations on the planet.
[edit] Industry and manufacturing
ParaguayChaco Cattleranch3 PdeHayes.JPG

The industrial sector produces about 25% of Paraguay’s gross domestic product (GDP) and employs about 31% of the labor force. Output grew by 2.9% in 2004, after five years of declining production. Traditionally an agricultural economy, Paraguay is showing some signs of long-term industrial growth.

The pharmaceutical industry is quickly supplanting foreign suppliers in meeting the country’s drug needs. Paraguayan companies now meet 70% of domestic consumption and have begun to export drugs. Strong growth also is evident in the production of edible oils, garments, organic sugar, meat processing, and steel.

Nevertheless, capital for further investment in the industrial sector of the economy is scarce. Following the revelation of widespread financial corruption in the 1990s, the government is still working to improve credit options for Paraguayan businesses. In 2003, manufacturing made up 13.6% of the GDP, and the sector employed about 11% of the working population in 2000. Paraguay’s primary manufacturing focus is on food and beverages. Wood products, paper products, hides and furs, and non-metallic mineral products also contribute to manufacturing totals. Steady growth in the manufacturing GDP during the 1990s (1.2% annually) laid the foundation for 2002 and 2003, when the annual growth rate rose to 2.5%.[46]
[edit] Education
Main article: Education in Paraguay

Literacy was about 93.6% and 87.7% of Paraguayans finish the 5th grade according to UNESCO’s last Educational Development Index 2008. Literacy does not differ much by gender.[47] Primary education is free, mandatory and takes nine years. Secondary education takes three years.[47] Paraguay has several universities. The National University of Asunción was founded in 1889, and the Universidad Americana is one of the best MBA-offering institutions in South America and Paraguay.[47] The net primary enrollment rate was at 88% in 2005.[47] Public expenditure on education was about 4.3 % of GDP in the early 2000s.[47]
[edit] Health

LIfe expectancy at birth was 75 years in 2006[48],and the 8th best position en America’s ranking according to World Health Organization. It is the same level of Argentina. Public expenditure on health is 2.6 % of GDP and private expenditure on health 5.1 %.[47] Infant mortality was 20 per 1,000 births in 2005.[47] Maternal mortality was 150 per 100,000 live births in 2000.[47] The World Bank has helped the Paraguayan government reduce Paraguay’s maternal and infant mortality. The Mother and Child Basic Health Insurance Project aimed to contribute to reducing mortality by increasing the use of selected life-saving services included in the country’s Mother and Child Basic Health Insurance Program (MCBI) by women of child-bearing age, and children under age six in selected areas. To this end, the project also targeted improving the quality and efficiency of the health service network within certain areas, in addition to increasing the Ministry of Public Health and Social Welfare’s (MSPBS) management.[49]
[edit] Culture
Main articles: Culture of Paraguay and Music of Paraguay
[edit] International rankings
Organization Survey Ranking
Institute for Economics and Peace [1] Global Peace Index[50] 73 out of 144
United Nations Development Programme Human Development Index 101 out of 182
Transparency International Corruption Perceptions Index 154 out of 180
World Economic Forum Global Competitiveness Report 124 out of 133
[edit] See also
Map-Latin America and Caribbean.png Latin America portal
Main article: Outline of Paraguay

* Index of Paraguay-related articles

[edit] References

1. ^ Paraguay – Constitution, Article 140 About Languages. International Constitutional Law Project. http://www.servat.unibe.ch/law/icl/pa00000_.html#A140_. Retrieved 2007-12-03 (see translator’s note)
2. ^ http://convergencia.uaemex.mx/rev38/38pdf/LIZCANO.pdf
3. ^ Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division (2009) (PDF). World Population Prospects, Table A.1. 2008 revision. United Nations. http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2008/wpp2008_text_tables.pdf. Retrieved 2009-03-12.
4. ^ a b “Paraguay”. International Monetary Fund. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2010/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2007&ey=2010&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=288&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=65&pr.y=13. Retrieved 2010-04-21.
5. ^ www.dgeec.gov.py
6. ^ “Human Development Report 2009: Paraguay”. The United Nations. http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/countries/country_fact_sheets/cty_fs_PRY.html. Retrieved 2009-10-18.
7. ^ Paraguay, corazón de América (1961)
8. ^ War of the Triple Alliance. Britannica Online Encyclopedia.
9. ^ Hanratty, Dannin M.; Meditz, Sandra W. (1988). Paraguay – History Paraguay: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress. http://countrystudies.us/paraguay/2.htm#INTRODUCTION Paraguay – History
10. ^ Nickson, Andrew (2009) The general election in Paraguay, April 2008 Journal of Electoral Studies 28(1):145-9
11. ^ “Paraguay Civil War 1947″. Onwar.com. http://www.onwar.com/aced/nation/pat/paraguay/fparaguay1947.htm. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
12. ^ Bernstein, Adam (2006-08-17). “Alfredo Stroessner; Paraguayan Dictator”. Washingtonpost.com. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/08/16/AR2006081601729.html. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
13. ^ Paraguayan Wins His Eighth Term. The New York Times. February 15, 1988.
14. ^ U.S. Library of Congress, “Country Studies: Paraguay”. Retrieved 10 June 2007.
15. ^ “Dirección General de Estadísticas, Encuestas y Censos”. Dgeec.gov.py. http://www.dgeec.gov.py/. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
16. ^ http://www.dgeec.gov.py/Censos/Imagenes/Cuestionario%20Censal.pdf?PHPSESSID=296abb7abfa015f8241d208aeaed71f4
17. ^ http://www.rlc.fao.org/es/desarrollo/mujer/docs/paraguay/par03.pdf
18. ^ “Paraguay colonial”. Monografias.com. 2007-05-07. http://www.monografias.com/trabajos29/paraguay-colonial/paraguay-colonial.shtml#biblio. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
19. ^ “MECDigital » Demografí­a”. Mec.gov.py. http://www.mec.gov.py/cmsmec/?page_id=2719. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
20. ^ “The World Factbook: Paraguay”. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/pa.html. Retrieved 2008-02-27.
21. ^ “Background Note: Paraguay”. U.S. State Department. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1841.htm. Retrieved 2008-02-27.
22. ^ Paraguay Information and History. National Geographic.
23. ^ San Alberto Journal: Awful Lot of Brazilians in Paraguay, Locals Say. The New York Times. June 12, 2001.
24. ^ “Afro-Paraguayan”. Joshua Project. U.S. Center for World Mission. http://www.joshuaproject.net/peoples.php?rop3=210548. Retrieved 2008-08-25.
25. ^ Antonio De La Cova (1999-12-28). “Paraguay’s Mennonites resent ‘fast buck’ outsiders”. Latinamericanstudies.org. http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/paraguay/mennonites.htm. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
26. ^ “3218.0 – Censo de la DGEEC, 2002″. DGEEC. 2002. http://www.dgeec.gov.py/Principal.php. Retrieved 2009.
27. ^ “Paraguay religion”. State.gov. 2007-09-14. http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90263.htm. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
28. ^ 2003 Census Bureau Household Survey
29. ^ Marió et al. (2004) Paraguay: Social Development Issues for Poverty Alleviation. World Bank report. Retrieved 18 June 2007.
30. ^ Nagel, Beverly Y.(1999) “‘Unleashing the Fury’: The Cultural Discourse of Rural Violence and Land Rights in Paraguay”, in Comparative Studies in Society and History, 41: 148-181. Cambridge University Press.
31. ^ United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report 2007/2008, p. 230.
32. ^ World Bank Povertynet.http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTPOVERTY/Resources/data_lac_1.pdf
33. ^ http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDI_2008_EN_Tables.pdf
34. ^ “World’s most expensive cities – Jun. 18, 2007″. Money.cnn.com. 2007-06-18. http://money.cnn.com/2007/06/15/pf/most_expensive_cities/index.htm. Retrieved 2008-09-26.
35. ^ “Paraguay moves up food chain”. Financial Times. 23 August 2008. http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/49def67e-70a4-11dd-b514-0000779fd18c.html.
36. ^ “India eyes L. America, Myanmar land for oilseeds”. Reuters India. 2 September 2008. http://in.reuters.com/article/domesticNews/idINDEL22656420080902.
37. ^ “Impenetrable olvido (..tan bajo el valor de la tierra que con dos campañas, sobra..)” (in Spanish). AMBIENTE-ARGENTINA. http://ipsnoticias.net/nota.asp?idnews=87208. Retrieved 2008-09-09.
38. ^ “Cada vez más Uruguayos compran campos Guaranés” (in Spanish). Consejo de Educacion Secundaria de Uruguay. 26 June 2008. http://www.ces.edu.uy/Relaciones_Publicas/BoletinPrensa/2007-08/20070824.pdf.
39. ^ European Union website, Country Profile: Paraguay”. Retrieved 18 June 2007.
40. ^ International Monetary Fund website, “IMF Country Report No. 01/88″ (2001), p.8. Retrieved 12 June 2007.
41. ^ European Union website, “The EU’s relations with Paraguay”. Retrieved 18 June 2007.
42. ^ European Community website, “Country Strategy Paper 2007-2013″. Retrieved 18 June 2007.
43. ^ “Profile of Paraguay”. US Department of State. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1841.htm. Retrieved 2009-01-10.
44. ^ “Paraguay GDP grows 5.8% in 2008; record per capita income”. Mercopress. 2008-12-30. http://www.mercopress.com/vernoticia.do?id=15678&formato=html. Retrieved 2009-01-10.
45. ^ Doing Business website, “Doing Business in Paraguay”. Retrieved 18 June 2007.
46. ^ “Paraguay” (PDF). http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Paraguay.pdf. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
47. ^ a b c d e f g h “Human Development Report 2009 – Paraguay”. Hdrstats.undp.org. http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/countries/data_sheets/cty_ds_PRY.html. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
48. ^ http://www.who.int/countries/pry/en/
49. ^ The World Bank website, “Paraguay Mother & Child Basic Health Insurance”. Retrieved 18 June 2007.
50. ^ “Vision of Humanity”. Vision of Humanity. http://www.visionofhumanity.org/gpi/home.php. Retrieved 2010-02-04.

[edit] Further reading

* Abdou, Selim The Jesuit Republic of the Guaranis 1609-1768, 1997
* Aren, Richard Genocide in Paraguay, 1976
* Attenborough, David Zoo Quest in Paraguay, 1950
* Barret, William E. Woman on Horseback: the Biography of Francisco Lopez and Eliza Lynch, 1938
* Boschmann, Erwin Paraguay – A Tour Guide, 2009
* Brodksy, Alvin Madame Lynch and Friend, 2075
* Cunninghame-Graham, Robert Bontine A Vanished Arcadia: Being Some Account of the Jesuits in Paraguay, 1607 to 1767
* Durrell, Gerald The Drunken Forest, 1956
* English, Adrian J. The Green Hell: A Concise History of the Chaco War Between Bolivia and Paraguay, 1932-35, 2007
* Gimlette, John At the Tomb of the Inflatable Pig: Travels Through Paraguay, 2003
* Hebblethwaite, Margaret Bradit Travel Guide: Paraguay, 2010
* Jaenike, William F. Black Robes in Paraguay: The Success of the Guarani Missions Hastened the Abolition of the Jesuits, 2008
* Kerr, John A Naturalist in the Chaco, 1950
* Lambert, Peter & Nickson, Andrew The Transition to Democracy in Paraguay, 1997
* Lewis, Paul Paraguay Under Stoessner, 1980
* Ligon, Ethan; Schechter, Laura, “The Value of Social Networks in rural Paraguay”, University of California, Berkeley, Seminar, March 25, 2009 , Department of Agricultural & Resource Economics, College of Natural Resources, University of California, Berkeley
* Macintyre, Ben Forgotten Fatherland: The Search for Elizabeth Nietzsche, 1993
* Meyer, Gordon The River and the People, 1965
* Mora, Frank O. and Cooney, Jerry W. Paraguay anhd the United States, 2007
* Nickson, Andrew Historical Dictionary of Paraguay, 1993
* Nickson, Andrew Paraguay: An Annotated Bibliography, 1999
* O’Shaughnessy, Hugh The Priest of Paraguay: Fernando Lugo and the Making of a Nation, 2009
* Rees, Sián The Shadow of Elisa Lynch, 2003
* Saeger, James S. Francisco Solano L-pez and the Ruination of Paraguay: Honor and Egocentrism, 2007
* Souter, Gavin A Peculiar People: the Australians in Paraguay, 1968
* Stoesz, Edward Like a Mustard Seed: Mennonites in Paraguay, 2008
* Whitehead, Anne Paradise Mislaid: In Search of the Australian Tribe of Paraguay, 1997
* Spencer, Jack Mounting the Bull, 2010

[edit] Paraguay in fiction (a brief chronological list)

* Voltaire, Candide, ou l’optimisme (1759)
* Robert Southey, A Tale of Paraguay [poem] (1825)
* Joseph Conrad, Nostromo [not explicitly set in Paraguay, but the country was an important source for Conrad's composite Latin American country] (1904)
* Gabriel Casaccia (the pen name of Benigno Casaccia Bibolini), Hombres, mujeres y fantoches (1930)
* Graham Greene, Travels With My Aunt (1969)
* Graham Greene, The Honorary Consul (1973)
* Augusto Roa Bastos, Yo, el Supremo (I, the Supreme) [about José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia, dictator of Paraguay, 1814-1840] (1974)
* Anne Enright, The Pleasure of Eliza Lynch [about the Irish-born mistress of President Francisco Solano Lopez] (2002)
* Lily Tuck, The News from Paraguay (2005)
* Ron Terpening, Tropic of Fear (2006)

[edit] External links

Government

* Chief of State and Cabinet Members
* (Spanish) National Department of Tourism
* (Spanish) Ministry of Finance with economic and Government information, available also in English

General information

* Paraguay from the Encyclopaedia Britannica
* Paraguay entry at The World Factbook
* Paraguay at UCB Libraries GovPubs
* Paraguay at the Open Directory Project
* Wikimedia Atlas of Paraguay

News media

* (Spanish) [http://www.larueda.com.py/ La Rueda - Weekly reviews]
* (Spanish) ABC Color
* (Spanish) Última Hora
* (Spanish) La Nación
* (Spanish) Paraguay.com
* (Spanish) Ñanduti

Travel

* Paraguay Convention & Visitor’s Bureau
* Paraguay.com: Tradition, Culture, Maps, Tourism
* Paraguay travel guide from Wikitravel
* (Spanish)Tourism in Paraguay, information, pictures and more. Turismo.com.py

[show]

Coat of arms of Paraguay.svg Republic of Paraguay
[show]

Politics
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Heads of state of Paraguay
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Yegros · Rodríguez de Francia · Yegros · Rodríguez de Francia · Ortiz · Medina · Roque Alonzo · C.A. López · F.S. López · Rivarola · Machaín · Rivarola · Jovellanos · Gill · Uriarte · Bareiro · Saguier · Caballero · Escobar · J.G. González · M. Morínigo · Egusquiza · Aceval · Carvallo · Escurra · Gaona · Báez · Ferreira · González Navero · Gondra · Jara · Rojas · Peña · González Navero · Schaerer · M. Franco · Montero · Gondra · Eusebio Ayala · Eligio Ayala · Riart · Eligio Ayala · Guggiari · Eusebio Ayala · R. Franco · Paiva · Estigarribia · H. Moríñigo · Frutos · J.N. González · Rolón · Molas · Chávez · Romero · Stroessner · Rodríguez · Wasmosy · Cubas · González Macchi · Duarte · Lugo
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[show]
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Divisions and cities of Paraguay
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Departments (17)

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Capital District (1)

Asunción
Largest cities
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Bolivia Bolivia Brazil
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Paraguay Paraguay
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Countries and territories also in or commonly reckoned to be elsewhere in the Americas shown in italics
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Andorra · Angola · Bolivia · Brazil · Cape Verde · Chile · Colombia · Costa Rica · Côte d’Ivoire · Cuba · Dominican Republic · East Timor · Ecuador · El Salvador · France · Guatemala · Guinea-Bissau · Haiti · Honduras · Italy · Mexico · Moldova · Monaco · Mozambique · Nicaragua · Panama · Paraguay · Peru · Philippines · Portugal · Romania · San Marino · São Tomé and Príncipe · Senegal · Spain · Uruguay · Venezuela
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[show]
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Full Members
Argentina · Brazil · Paraguay · Uruguay

Becoming Full Members
Venezuela

Associate members
Bolivia · Chile · Colombia · Ecuador · Peru

Observers
Mexico

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Retrieved from “http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraguay”
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Flag Coat of arms
Motto: “Freedom and Justice”
Anthem: God Bless Our Homeland Ghana[1]
Location of Ghana (dark red)in Western Africa (light yellow)
Location of Ghana (dark red)

in Western Africa (light yellow)
Capital
(and largest city) Accra
5°33′N 0°15′W / 5.55°N 0.25°W / 5.55; -0.25
Official language(s) English
Government-sponsored
languages Akan, specifically Ashanti Twi, Fanti, Akuapem Twi, Akyem, Kwahu, Nzema; Dagaare/Wale, Dagbani, Dangme, Ewe, Ga, Gonja and Kasem
Demonym Ghanaian
Government Constitutional presidential republic
– President John Atta Mills
– Vice-President John Dramani Mahama
– Speaker of Parliament Joyce Bamford-Addo
– Chief Justice Georgina Theodora Wood
Independence from the United Kingdom
– Declared 6 March 1957
– Republic 1 July 1960
– Current Constitution 28 April 1992
Area
– Total 238,535 km2 (81st)
92,098 sq mi
– Water (%) 3.5
Population
– 2010 estimate 23,837,000[2] (48th)
– Density 99.9/km2 (103rd)
258.8/sq mi
GDP (PPP) 2010 estimate
– Total $38 billion[3]
– Per capita $1,591 [3]
GDP (nominal) 2010 estimate
– Total $18 billion[3]
– Per capita $755[3]
HDI (2007) ▲ 0.553 (medium) (136th)
Currency Ghanaian cedi (GHS)
Time zone GMT (UTC0)
– Summer (DST) GMT (UTC0)
Drives on the right
Internet TLD .gh
Calling code 233

The Republic of Ghana is a country located in West Africa. It is bordered by Côte d’Ivoire (Ivory Coast) to the west, Burkina Faso to the north, Togo to the east, and the Gulf of Guinea to the south. The word Ghana means “Warrior King”[4] and is derived from the ancient Ghana Empire.

Ghana was inhabited in pre-colonial times by a number of ancient predominantly Akan Kingdoms, including the Akwamu on the eastern coast, the inland Ashanti Empire and various Fante and non-Akan states, like the Ga and Ewe, along the coast and inland. Trade with European states flourished after contact with the Portuguese in the 15th century, and the British established the Gold Coast Crown colony in 1874.[5]

The Gold Coast achieved independence from the United Kingdom in 1957, becoming the first sub-Saharan African nation to do so[6][7][8] and the name Ghana was chosen for the new nation to reflect the ancient Empire of Ghana, which once extended throughout much of west Africa. Ghana is a member of the South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone, the Commonwealth of Nations, the Economic Community of West African States, the African Union, and an associate Member of La Francophonie. Ghana is the second largest producer of cocoa in the world and is also home to Lake Volta, the largest artificial lake in the world by surface area.[9]
Contents
[hide]

* 1 Etymology
* 2 History
* 3 Regions and districts
o 3.1 Population of major cities
* 4 Government and politics
* 5 Economy
* 6 Geography
* 7 Demographics
o 7.1 Health
* 8 Languages
* 9 People and culture
o 9.1 Sports
o 9.2 Fashion
o 9.3 Fine arts
o 9.4 Music
o 9.5 Dance
* 10 Religion
* 11 Media and entertainment
* 12 Education
* 13 International rankings
* 14 See also
* 15 References
* 16 External links

[edit] Etymology
Map of Ghana

The word Ghana means Warrior King and was the title accorded to the kings of the medieval West African Ghana Empire.[10] Geographically, the Ghana Empire was approximately 500 miles (800 km) north and west of modern Ghana, and it ruled territories in the area of the Sénégal River and east towards the Niger River, in modern Senegal, Mauritania and Mali.

Ghana was adopted as the legal name for the Gold Coast combined with British Togoland upon gaining independence on March 6, 1957; however, it was not until July 1, 1960 that Ghana asserted its complete autonomy from Britain and became known as the Republic of Ghana.
[edit] History
Main article: History of Ghana

There is archaeological evidence which shows that humans have lived in what is present day Ghana from about 1500 BC.[11] Nonetheless, there is no proof that those early dwellers are related to the current inhabitants of the area. Oral tradition has it that many of Ghana’s current ethnic groups such as the multi-ethnic Akan, the Ga and the Ewe arrived around the 13th Century AD. However, the Dagomba are believed to be the first settlers, having been fully established by 1210 AD, before the arrival of the other ethnic groups.
Ashanti yam ceremony, 19th century by Thomas E. Bowdich
Cape Coast Castle

Modern Ghanaian territory includes what was the Empire of Ashanti, one of the most influential states in sub-Saharan Africa before colonial rule. Akan migrants moved southward and founded several nation-states including the first great Akan empire of the Bono, which is now known as the Brong-Ahafo region in Ghana. Much of the area of modern day south central Ghana was united under the Empire of Ashanti of the Ashanti people, a branch of the Akan people by the 16th century.

The Ashanti government operated first as a loose network and eventually as a centralized kingdom with an advanced, highly specialized bureaucracy centered in Kumasi. It is said that at its peak, the Asantehene could field 500,000 troops and had some degree of military influence over all of its neighbours. Among the Ashanti a third of the population were slaves.[12] The Ga people developed an effective unit around 1500 [13] and the Gonja, Dagomba and Mamprusi also fought for political power in the 1620s.[13]

Early European contact by the Portuguese, who came to Ghana in the 15th century, focused on the extensive availability of gold. The Portuguese first landed at a coastal city inhabited by the Fante nation-state and they named the place Elmina, which means “the mine” in Portuguese. In 1481, King John II of Portugal commissioned Diogo d’Azambuja to build Elmina Castle, which was completed in 3 years. Their aim was to trade in gold, ivory and slaves, consolidating their burgeoning political and economic power in the region.

By 1548, the Dutch had joined them, and built forts at Komenda and Kormantsi. In 1617, they captured the Olnini Castle from the Portuguese and Axim in 1642 (Fort St Anthony). Other European traders joined in by the mid 17th century, largely English, Danes and Swedes. British merchants, impressed with the gold resources in the area, named it the Gold Coast, while French merchants, impressed with the trinkets worn by the coastal people, named the area to the west “Côte d’Ivoire”, or Ivory Coast.
Elmina Castle

More than thirty forts and castles were built by the Portuguese, Dutch, British and Spanish merchants. The Gold Coast was known for centuries as ‘The White Man’s Grave’ because many of the Europeans who went there died of malaria and other tropical diseases.[14] After the Dutch withdrew in 1874, Britain made the Gold Coast a protectorate. Following conquest by the British in 1896, until independence in March 1957, the territory of modern Ghana excluding the Volta Region (British Togoland), was known as the Gold Coast.

Many wars occurred between the colonial powers and the various nation-states in the area including the 1806 Ashanti-Fante War and the continuous struggle by the Ashanti against the British, which ended in 1901 with the Third Ashanti-British War (1900–1901).[15] Even under colonial rule the chiefs and people often resisted the policies of the British; however, moves toward de-colonization intensified after World War II. In 1947 the newly formed United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC) called for “self-government within the shortest possible time.”[16] After rioting increased in 1948, the members of the United Gold Coast Convention were arrested, including future Prime Minister and President, Kwame Nkrumah. Later Nkrumah formed his own party, the Convention People’s Party (CPP) with the motto “self government now.” He began a ‘Positive Action’ campaign and gained the support of rural and working class people.[15]

Once again he was imprisoned for being the leader of a party that caused boycotts, strikes and other forms of civil disobedience. After winning a majority of seats in the Legislative Assembly in 1952; however, Kwame Nkrumah was released and appointed Leader of Government Business. After further negotiations with Britain finally on March 6, 1957 at 12 a.m. Kwame Nkrumah declared Ghana “free forever”.[15]

The flag which consists of the colours red, gold, green and the black star became the new flag in 1957. Designed by Theodosia Salome Okoh, the red represents the blood that was shed towards independence, the gold represents the mineral wealth of Ghana, the green symbolises the rich agriculture and the black star is the symbol of African emancipation.[17]

Formed from the merger of the Gold Coast and British Togoland by a United Nations sponsored plebiscite in 1956, Ghana became the first sub-Saharan African country to gain its independence in 1957.

Kwame Nkrumah, first Prime Minister and then President of the modern Ghanaian state, was not only an African anti-colonial leader but also one with a dream of a united Africa which would not drift into neo-colonialism. He was the first African head of state to promote Pan-Africanism, an idea he came into contact with during his studies at Lincoln University in Pennsylvania (United States), at the time when Marcus Garvey was becoming famous for his “Back to Africa Movement.” He merged the dreams of both Marcus Garvey and the celebrated African-American scholar W. E. B. Du Bois into the formation of the modern day Ghana. Ghana’s principles of freedom and justice, equity and free education for all, irrespective of ethnic background, religion or creed, borrow from Kwame Nkrumah’s implementation of Pan-Africanism.
Independence Arch, Ghana

Although his goal of African unity never realised, Osagyefo Dr. Kwame Nkrumah, as he is now known, played an instrumental part in the founding of the Organisation of African Unity, which was succeeded in 2002 by the African Union. His achievements were recognised by Ghanaians during his Centenary birthday celebrations and the day instituted as a public holiday in Ghana. Dr. Kwame Nkrumah’s government was subsequently overthrown by the military while abroad in February 1966. It is believed by many political analysts that the United States’ Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) participated in the coup, but that generally remains unproven.

A series of subsequent coups from 1966 to 1981 ended with the ascension to power of Flight Lieutenant Jerry Rawlings in 1981. These changes resulted in the suspension of the constitution in 1981 and the banning of political parties. The economy suffered a severe decline soon after, and many Ghanaians migrated to other countries. Although most migrating Ghanaians went to Nigeria, the Nigerian government deported about a million Ghanaians back to Ghana in 1983.[18]

Jerry Rawlings soon negotiated a structural adjustment plan with the International Monetary Fund and changed many old economic policies and, thus, the economy soon began to recover. A new constitution restoring multi-party politics was promulgated in 1992, and Rawlings was elected as president then and again in 1996. The Constitution of 1992 prohibited him from running for a third term, so his party, the National Democratic Congress, chose his Vice President, John Atta Mills, to run against the opposition parties. Winning the 2000 elections, John Kufuor of the New Patriotic Party was sworn into office as President in January 2001, and beat Mills again in 2004; thus, also serving two terms as President.

Since 2008 Ghana have had several issues with its taxing and income of most of its workers. It has had several issues with ongoing security which has led to a major decrease in the country’s overall wealth. As well as this the next president (see below) promised to build more tarmac roads as he commented on its major lack of them.

In 2009, John Atta Mills took office as president with a difference of about 40,000 votes (0.46%) [19] between his party, the National Democratic Congress, and the New Patriotic Party, marking the second time that power had been transferred from one legitimately elected leader to another, and securing Ghana’s status as a stable democracy.[20]
[edit] Regions and districts
Main articles: Regions of Ghana and Districts of Ghana
Regions of Ghana

Ghana is divided into 10 administrative regions, subdivided into a total of 138 districts. The regions are:

* Ashanti, capital Kumasi
* Brong Ahafo, capital Sunyani
* Central, capital Cape Coast
* Eastern, capital Koforidua
* Greater Accra, capital Accra

* Northern, capital Tamale
* Upper East, capital Bolgatanga
* Upper West, capital Wa
* Volta, capital Ho
* Western, capital Sekondi-Takoradi

[edit] Population of major cities
City Population
Accra 3,963,264
Kumasi 2,604,909
Tamale 390,730
Takoradi 260,651
Tema 229,106
Teshie 154,513
Sekondi 153,900
Cape Coast 200,204
Obuasi 147,613
Dunkwa-On-Offin 108,482
[edit] Government and politics
Main article: Politics of Ghana
The Supreme Court Building, Accra
Ghana at 50 celebrations

According to the 2009 Failed States Index, Ghana is ranked the 53rd least failed state in the world and the second least failed state in Africa after Mauritius. Ghana ranked 124th out of 177 countries on the index.[21] Ghana also was placed 7th out of 48 sub-Saharan African countries in the 2008 Ibrahim Index of African Governance which was based on data from 2006. The Ibrahim Index is a comprehensive measure of African government, based on a number of different variables which reflect the success with which governments deliver essential political goods to its citizens.[22]

Government: Ghana was created as a parliamentary democracy at independence in 1957, followed by alternating military and civilian governments. In January 1993, military government gave way to the Fourth Republic after presidential and parliamentary elections in late 1992. The 1992 constitution divides powers among a President, Parliament, Cabinet, Council of State, and an independent judiciary. The Government is elected by universal suffrage; however, the legislature is greatly malapportioned, with low-population districts receiving more representatives per person than those with high populations.[23]

Administrative Divisions: There are ten administrative regions which are divided into 138 districts, each with its own District Assembly. Below districts are various types of councils, including 58 town or area councils, 108 zonal councils, and 626 area councils. 16,000 unit committees on lowest level.[23]
The Presidential Palace, Golden Jubilee House, Accra

Judicial System: The legal system is based on British common law, customary (traditional) law, and the 1992 constitution. Court hierarchy consists of Supreme Court of Ghana (highest court), Courts of Appeal, and High Courts of Justice. Beneath these bodies are circuit, magisterial, and traditional courts. Extrajudicial institutions include public tribunals. Since independence, courts are relatively independent; this independence continues under Fourth Republic. Lower courts are being redefined and reorganized under the Fourth Republic.[23]
Kofi Annan

Politics: Political parties became legal in mid-1992 after a ten-year hiatus. There are many political parties under the Fourth Republic; however, the major ones are the National Democratic Congress which won presidential and parliamentary elections in 1992, 1996 and 2008; the New Patriotic Party, the major opposition party which won elections in 2000 and 2004; the People’s National Convention, and the Convention People’s Party, successor to Kwame Nkrumah’s original party of the same name.[23]

Foreign Relations: Since independence, Ghana has been fervently devoted to ideals of nonalignment and Pan-Africanism, both closely identified with first president, Osagyefo Dr. Kwame Nkrumah. Ghana favors international and regional political and economic co-operation, and is an active member of the United Nations and the African Union.[citation needed]

Many Ghanaian diplomats and politicians hold positions in international organisations. These include Ghanaian diplomat and former Secretary-General of the United Nations, Kofi Annan, International Criminal Court Judge Akua Kuenyehia, and former president Jerry Rawlings, who was elected chairman of the Economic Community of West African States.[23]
[edit] Economy
Main article: Economy of Ghana

Well endowed with natural resources, Ghana has twice the per capita output of the poorer countries in West Africa. Even so, Ghana remains somewhat dependent on trade and international assistance as well as the investment activities of Ghanaian diaspora. About 28% of the population live below the international poverty line of US$1.25 a day, the vast majority of which are Ghanaian women from the politically marginalised and poor northern and upper regions[24] and according to the World Bank, Ghana’s per capita income has barely doubled over the past 45 years.[25] Ghana, known for its gold in colonial times, remains one of the world’s top gold producers. Other exports such as cocoa, timber, electricity, diamond, bauxite,[26] and manganese are major sources of foreign exchange monitored, operated and managed by the Presidential Ministry Agricultural Arm of the Republic of Ghana headed by Mrs. Antoinette Efua-Addo (see more information at www.Ghana-agricexport.com).[27] An oilfield which is reported to contain up to 3 billion barrels (480,000,000 m3) of light oil was discovered in 2007.[28] Oil exploration is ongoing and the amount of oil continues to increase.[29] There is expected to be a tremendous inflow of capital into the economy beginning from the last quarter of 2010 when the country starts producing oil in commercial quantities.
Sunyani Cocoa House

The Akosombo Dam, which was built on the Volta River in 1965 provides hydro-electricity for Ghana and its neighboring countries.

Ghana’s labor force in 2008 totalled 11.5 million people [30] The economy continues to rely heavily on agriculture which accounts for 37.3% of GDP and provides employment for 56% of the work force,[30] mainly small landholders. Manufacturing is only a small part of the Ghanaian economy totalling 7.9% of Gross Domestic Product in 2007.[31]

Ineffective economic policies of past military governments and regional peacekeeping commitments have led to continued inflationary deficit financing, depreciation of the Cedi, and rising public discontent with Ghana’s austerity measures. Even so, Ghana remains one of the more economically sound countries in all of Africa.

In July 2007, the Bank of Ghana embarked on a currency re-denomination exercise, from the Cedi (¢) to the new currency, the Ghana Cedi (GH¢). The transfer rate is 1 Ghana Cedi for every 10,000 Cedis. The Bank of Ghana employed aggressive media campaigns to educate the public about the re-denomination.

The new Ghana Cedi is relatively stable and in 2009 generally exchanged at a rate of $1 USD =Gh¢ 1.4 [30] The Value Added Tax is a consumption tax administered in Ghana. The tax regime which started in 1998 had a single rate but since September 2007 entered into a multiple rate regime.

In 1998, the rate of tax was 10% and amended in 2000 to 12.5%. However with the passage of Act 734 of 2007, a 3% VAT Flat Rate Scheme (VFRS) began to operate for the retail distribution sector. This allows retailers of taxable goods under Act 546 to charge a marginal 3% on their sales and account on same to the VAT Service. It is aimed at simplifying the tax system and increasing compliance.[citation needed]
[edit] Geography
Main article: Geography of Ghana
Aburi Botanical Gardens
Volta River
Beach in Ghana
Elephants at Mole National Park

Ghana is a country located on the Gulf of Guinea, only a few degrees north of the Equator, therefore giving it a warm climate. The country spans an area of 238,500 km2 (92,085 sq mi). It is surrounded by Togo to the east, Côte d’Ivoire to the west, Burkina Faso to the north and the Gulf of Guinea (Atlantic Ocean) to the south. The Greenwich Meridian passes through Ghana, specifically through the industrial city of Tema. Ghana is geographically closer to the “centre” of the world than any other country even though the actual centre, (0°, 0°) is located in the Atlantic Ocean approximately 614 km (382 mi) south of Accra, Ghana, in the Gulf of Guinea.[32]

The country encompasses flat plains, low hills and a few rivers. Ghana can be divided into five different geographical regions. The coastline is mostly a low, sandy shore backed by plains and scrub and intersected by several rivers and streams while the northern part of the country features high plains. Southwest and south central Ghana is made up of a forested plateau region consisting of the Ashanti uplands and the Kwahu Plateau and the hilly Akuapim-Togo ranges are found along the country’s eastern border.

The Volta Basin also takes up most of central Ghana. Ghana’s highest point is Mount Afadjato which is 885 m (2,904 ft) and is found in the Akwapim-Togo Ranges. The climate is tropical. The eastern coastal belt is warm and comparatively dry (see Dahomey Gap); the southwest corner, hot and humid; and the north, hot and dry. Lake Volta, the world’s largest artificial lake, extends through large portions of eastern Ghana and is the main source of many tributary rivers such as the Oti and Afram rivers.

There are two main seasons in Ghana; the wet and the dry seasons. Northern Ghana experiences its rainy season from March to November while the south, including the capital Accra, experiences the season from April to Mid-November. Southern Ghana contains evergreen and semideciduous forests consisting of trees such as mahogany, odum and ebony. It also contains much of Ghana’s oil palms and mangroves. Shea trees, baobabs and acacias are usually found in the Volta region and the northern part of the country.
[edit] Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Ghana
Bolga road, Tamale
Larabanga Mosque, built in the 13th century, Larabanga
Wesley Methodist Cathedral, Kumasi

Ghana has a population of about 24 million people. It is home to more than 100 different ethnic groups. Ghana has not seen the kind of ethnic conflict that has created civil wars in many other African countries.[33] The official language is English; however, most Ghanaians also speak at least one local language.

The ethnic groups in Ghana are the Akan (which includes the Fante, Akyem, Ashanti, Kwahu, Akuapem, Nzema, Bono, Akwamu, Ahanta and others) 49.3%, Mole-Dagbon 15.2%, Ewe 11.7%, Ga-Dangme (comprising of the Ga, Adangbe, Ada, Krobo and others) 7.3%, Guan 4%, Gurma 3.6%, Gurunsi 2.6%, Mande-Busanga 1%, other tribes 1.4%, other (Hausa, Zabarema, Fulani) 1.8% (2000 census). According to the CIA World Factbook, religious divisions are as follows: Christian 68.8%, Muslim 15.9%, Traditional African beliefs 8.5%[34][35].
[edit] Health

As of 2009, life expectancy at birth is about 59 years for males and 60 years for females [36] with infant mortality at 51 per 1000 live births.[36] The birth rate is also about 4 children born per woman. There are about 15 physicians and 93 nurses per 100,000 persons.[37] 4.5% of the country’s GDP was spent on health in 2003.[37]
[edit] Languages
Main article: Languages of Ghana

Ghana has 47 local languages. English is the country’s official language and predominates government and business affairs. It is also the standard language used for educational instruction. Native Ghanaian languages are divided into two linguistic subfamilies of the Niger-Congo language family. Languages belonging to the Kwa subfamily are found predominantly to the south of the Volta River, while those belonging to the Gur subfamily are found predominantly to the north. The Kwa group, which is spoken by about 75% of the country’s population, includes the Akan, Ga-Dangme, and Ewe languages. The Gur group includes the Gurma, Grusi, and Dagbani languages.[38]

Nine languages have the status of government-sponsored languages: Akan, specifically Ashanti Twi, Fanti, Akuapem Twi, Akyem, Kwahu, Nzema; Dagaare/Wale, Dagbani, Dangme, Ewe, Ga, Gonja and Kasem.Though not an official language, Hausa is the lingua-franca spoken among Ghana’s Muslims[39] who comprise about 16% of the population.
[edit] People and culture
Main article: Culture of Ghana

Ghana is an ethnically diverse country; thus, Ghanaian culture is a mixture of all its ethnic groups, the Ashanti, Fante, Akyem, Kwahu, Ga, Ewe, Mamprusi and Dagomba, among others. It is most evident in Ghanaian cuisine, the arts and clothing. The celebration of festivals in Ghana is an essential part of Ghanaian culture and there are many of them such as the Homowo, Odwira, Aboakyer, Dodoleglime, Hogbetsotso, Tedudu, Deza (festival) and Sandema among others. Several rites and rituals are performed throughout the year in various parts of the country, including child-birth, rites of passage, puberty, marriage and death.
[edit] Sports
Tamale stadium
Vida Anim, Ghanaian athlete

Association Football is the most popular sport in the country. The national men’s football team is known as the Black Stars, with the under-20 team known as the Black Satellites. The under-17 team is known as the Black Starlets, while the national men’s Olympic team is the Black Meteors. They have participated in many championships including the African Cup of Nations, the FIFA World Cup and the FIFA U-20 World Cup.

On October 16, 2009, Ghana became the first African nation to win the FIFA U-20 World Cup by defeating Brazil 4-3 in a penalty shootout.[40] On June 13, 2010, Ghana defeated Serbia 1-0 in first round play in the 2010 FIFA World Cup becoming the first African team to win a FIFA World Cup game hosted on African soil and subsequently became the only African team to progress from the group stage to the knock out phase at the 2010 event. On June 26, 2010 Ghana defeated the USA by 2 goals to 1 in their round of 16 match, becoming the third African country to reach the quarter final stage of the World Cup after Cameroon in 1990 and Senegal in 2002. A loss to Uruguay in Johannesburg on July 2, 2010 by penalty shoot-out ended Ghana’s attempt at reaching the semi-finals of the competition.[41]

While men’s football is most widely followed sport in Ghana, the national women’s football team is gaining exposure, participating in the FIFA Women’s World Cup and the CAF Women’s Championship. The Ghana national women’s football team is known as the Black Queens, while the Ghana national women’s under-20 football team are the Black Princesses.

There are several club football teams in Ghana, which play in the Ghana premier league and Division One league, both managed by the Ghana Football Association. Notable among these are Accra Hearts of Oak SC and Asante Kotoko, which play at the premier league level and are the dominant contenders in the tournament.

Prominent Ghanaian football players recognised at the international level are Michael Essien, Abedi Pele, Asamoah Gyan, Ibrahim Abdul Razak, Tony Yeboah, Anthony Annan, Quincy Owusu-Abeyie, John Pantsil,Kevin-Prince Boateng, Samuel Osei Kuffour, Richard Kingson, Sulley Muntari, Laryea Kingston, Stephen Appiah, Andre Ayew, Emmanuel Agyemang-Badu, John Mensah and Dominic Adiyiah.

Ghana is also the birth place of World Wrestling Entertainment Wrestler Kofi Kingston (born Kofi Sarkodie-Mensah), who is wrestling on the Smackdown brand. Also is Kwame Nkrumah-Acheampong who competed in the Vancouver Winter Olympics. The country has also produced quite a few quality boxers such as Azumah Nelson a three time world champion, Nana Yaw Konadu also a three time world champion, Ike Quartey, and Joshua Clottey, who lost his most recent fight to boxing champion Manny Pacquiao.
[edit] Fashion
Ashanti Kente cloth
Ewe cloth in Kente pattern

Textiles are very important in Ghanaian culture. These cloths are used to make traditional and modern attire. Different symbols and different colors mean different things. The Kente is probably the most famous of all the Ghanaian cloths. Kente is an Ashanti ceremonial cloth hand-woven on a horizontal treadle loom. Strips measuring about 4 inches wide are sewn together into larger pieces of cloths. Cloths come in various colors, sizes and designs and are worn during very important social and religious occasions.

In a cultural context, kente is more important than just a cloth. It is a visual representation of history, and also form of a written language through weaving. The term kente has its roots in the Twi word kenten which means a basket. The first kente weavers used raffia fibers to weave cloths that looked like kenten (a basket); and thus were referred to as kenten ntoma; meaning basket cloth. The original Asante name of the cloth was nsaduaso or nwontoma, meaning “a cloth hand-woven on a loom”; however, the term kente is the most popularly used term today. Many variations of narrow-strip cloths similar to kente are woven by various ethnic groups in Ghana like the Ewe, Ga and others in Africa. It is also popular among the African diaspora.

[edit] Fine arts

Ghana has been recognized on the international level through several artists, including the Kane Kwei Carpentry Workshop and Eric Adjetey Anang who are creating the famous design coffins.
The Kane Kwei Carpentry Workshop staged by Guy Hersant on January 10, 2010
[edit] Music
Main article: Music of Ghana
Ghanaian drummers
Axatse

Ghana has many types of traditional and modern music. The sound varies from ethnic group to ethnic group and region to region. Ghanaian music incorporates several distinct types of musical instruments such as the talking drum ensembles, goje fiddle and koloko lute, court music, including the Akan atumpan, the Ga kpanlogo styles, and log xylophones used in asonko music. The most well known genres to have come from Ghana are Afro-jazz which was created by Ghanaian artist Kofi Ghanaba.[42] and its earlist form of secular music is called Highlife.

Highlife originated in the late 1800 and early 1900s and spread throughout West Africa mainly Sierra Leone and Nigeria. In the 1990’s a new genre of music was created by the youth incorporating the influences of Highlife Afro-reggae, Dancehall and Hiphop. This hybrid was called Hiplife. Ghanaian artists such as R&B and Soul singer Rhian Benson and Highlife singer Kojo Antwi have had international success.
[edit] Dance

Ghanaian dance is as diverse as its music. Each ethnic group has their own traditional dances and there are different dances for different occasions. There are dances for funerals, celebrations, storytelling, praise and worship etc. Some of these dances include

Bamaya It is performed by the Northern people of Ghana. It narrates the legend of a time of great drought. An oracle told the people that the drought was brought about by the manner in which the men were severely repressing and demeaning the women. It further stated that the drought would be relieved only when the men lowered themselves to the role they were imposing on the women by putting on skirts and participating in this dance. When the men did this it began to rain. It is currently performed during harvest time in northwestern Ghana by both Dagbani men and women.
Ghanaian dancers

Adowa A dance of the Ashanti peoples of Ghana. This dance is especially noted for the grace and complexity of the dancers’ movements. The drumming is also noted for the complexity of the interlocking rhythms and the two atumpan drums which are used as the lead or master drum. Originally funeral dance music, Adowa is now also performed at annual festivals and social gatherings.

Kpanlongo Is performed by the Ga people of Ghana. It is often referred to as “the dance of the youth,” Kpanlongo started during the wake of Ghana’s Independence as a musical type for entertainment in Accra. Kpanlongo is presently performed at life-cycle events, festivals, and political rallies.

Klama Is the music and dance is associated with puberty rites of the Krobo people of Ghana. It emphasizes the graceful movement of hands and feet. With small rhythmic steps and heads turned demurely downward, the dancers embody quiet elegance. The different movements of the dance are designed to reveal the beauty of the dancers. Suitors watching from the sidelines will often approach a girl’s family after the ceremony and make an offer for her hand in marriage.

Agbadza The traditional dance of the Eʋe (Ewe or Eve) people of Ghana. It is characterized by the graceful choreograph of a couple seasoned with the rhythmic movement of the arms, the waist and the feet in perfect synchrony. Agbadza, is traditionally a war dance but is now used in social and recreational situations to celebrate peace. War dances are sometimes used as military training exercises, with signals from the lead drum ordering the warriors to move ahead, to the right, go down, etc. These dances also helped in preparing the warriors for battle and upon their return from fighting they would act out their deeds in battle through their movements in the dance.

Atsiagbekor is a contemporary version of the Ewe war dance Atamga (Great (ga) Oath (atama) in reference to the oaths taken by people before proceeding into battle. The movements of this present-day version are mostly in platoon formation and are not only used to display battle tactics, but also to energize and invigorate the soldiers. Today, Atsiagbekor is performed for entertainment at social gatherings and at cultural presentations.

Atsia dance is performed mostly by women, and its a series of stylistic movements dictated to dancers by the lead drummer. Each dance movement has its own prescribed rhythmic pattern, which is synchronized with the lead drum. ‘Atsia’ in the Ewe language means style or display.

Bɔbɔɔbɔ (pronounced Borborbor) the Ewe-speaking people in the central and northern parts of the Volta Region of Ghana cultivate the Bɔbɔɔbɔ dance. Bɔbɔɔbɔ (originally ‘Akpese’) might have originated in the Kpando area, and is said to have been created by the late Mr. Francis Kojo Nuadro. He is thought to have been an ex-police officer who returned to Kpando and organized a group in the middle to late 1940’s. The dance has its roots in the ‘Highlife’ popular music of Ghana and other West African countries. Bɔbɔɔbɔ gained national recognition in the 1950’s and 1960’s because of its use at political rallies and the novelty of its dance formations and movements. It is generally performed at funerals and other social occasions. This is a social dance with a great deal of room for free expression. In general, the men sing and dance in the center while the women dance in a ring around them. There are ‘slow’ and ‘fast’ versions of Bɔbɔɔbɔ; the fast Bɔbɔɔbɔ is believed to come from the Kpando area and the slow version from Hohoe. The slow one is called Akpese and the fast one is termed to be Bɔbɔɔbɔ. Lolobi-Kumasi is known for doing a particular fast version of the slow version.

Agahu is both the name of a dance and of one the many secular music associations (clubs) of the Ewe people of Ghana, Togo, and Dahomey. (Gadzok, Takada, and Atsiagbeko are other such clubs). Each club has its own distinctive drumming and dancing, as well as its own repertoire of songs. A popular social dance of West Africa, Agahu was created by the Egun speaking people from the town of Ketonu in what is now Benin. From there it spread to the Badagry area of Nigeria where migrant Ewe fisherman heard, adapted, and eventually took it to Ghana. In dancing the Agahu, two circles are formed; the men stay stationary with their arms out and then bend with a knee forward for the women to sit on. They progress around the circle until they arrive at their original partner.
[edit] Religion
Main article: Religion in Ghana

According to the CIA World Factbook, religious divisions are as follows: Christian 68.8%, Muslim 15.9%, Traditional African beliefs 8.5%[34][35].
Wiki letter w.svg This section requires expansion.
[edit] Media and entertainment
Miss Ghana 2007
Main article: Media of Ghana

The media of Ghana is one of the most free in Africa, and had previously undergone a series of government overthrows by military leaders and periods of severe restriction. Chapter 12 of the 1992 Constitution of Ghana guarantees freedom of the press and independence of the media, while Chapter 2 prohibits censorship.[43]

Post independence, the government and media often had a tense relationship, with private outlets closed during the military coups and strict media laws that prevent criticism of government.[44] The media freedoms were restored in 1992, and after the election in 2000 of John Kufuor the tensions between the private media and government decreased. Kufuor was a supporter of press freedom and repealed a libel law, though maintained that the media had to act responsibly.[45] The Ghanaian media has been described as “one of the most unfettered” in Africa, operating with little restriction on private media. The private press often carries criticism of government policy.[46] The media were vigorous in their coverage of the 2008 Ghanaian presidential election, and the Ghanaian Journalists Association (GJA) praised John Atta Mills on his election, hoping to foster a good media-government relationship.[47]
[edit] Education
Main article: Education in Ghana
Accuracy dispute
This article appears to contradict the article Education in Ghana. Please see discussion on the linked talk page. Please do not remove this message until the contradictions are resolved. (July 2009)
A Dora textile group in Nsawam
University of Cape Coast

The adult literacy rate in Ghana was 65% in 2007 , with males at 71.7% and females at 58.3%. Ghana has a 6-year primary education system beginning at the age of six, and, under the educational reforms implemented in 1987 and reformed in 2007, they pass on to a 3-year junior high school system. At the end of the 3rd year of Junior High, there is a mandatory Basic Education Certificate Examination (BECE). Those continuing must complete the 3-year senior high school (SHS) program and take an admission exam to enter any university or tertiary programme.

Presently, Ghana has 21,530 primary schools, 8,850 junior secondary schools, 900 senior secondary schools, 52[48] public training colleges, 5[48] private training colleges, 5[48] polytechnical institutions, 4[48] non-university public tertiary institutions, 8[48] public universities and over 45[48] private tertiary institutions. Most Ghanaians have relatively easy access to primary and secondary education. These numbers can be contrasted with the single university and handful of secondary and primary schools that existed at the time of independence in 1957. Ghana’s spending on education has varied between 28 and 40 percent of its annual budget in the past decade. All teaching is done in English, Ghana’s official language, mostly by qualified Ghanaian educators.
Achimota School
Ghanaian school children

The courses taught at the Primary or Basic School level include English, Ghanaian language and Culture, Mathematics, Environmental studies, Social Studies and French as a Third language are added, Integrated or General Science, Pre- vocational Skills and Pre-technical skills, Religious and Moral Education, and physical activities such as Music, Dance and Physical Education. The Senior High level School curriculum has Core subjects and Elective subjects of which students must take four the core subjects of English language, Mathematics, Integrated Science (including Science, Agriculture and Environmental studies) and Social Studies (economics, geography, history and government).

The High school students also choose 3 elective subjects from 5 available programmes: Agriculture Programme, General Programme (Arts or Science option), Business Programme, Vocational Programme and Technical programme.[49] Apart from most primary and secondary schools which choose the Ghanaian system of schooling, there are also international schools such as the Ghana International school, The Roman Ridge School, the Lincoln Community School and the Gmeiner International College, which offer the International Baccalaureat, Advanced Level General Certificate of Education and the International General Certificate of Secondary Education (IGCSE).

With 83 percent of its children in school, Ghana currently has one of the highest school enrolment rates in West Africa.[50] The ratio of girls to boys in the total education system is 1:0.96, which for a West African country, is a considerable achievement.[51] That said, some 500,000 children still remain out of school because of resource constraints in building schools, providing adequate textbooks and training new teachers.[51] UNESCO reports that sixth-graders sitting a simple multiple-choice reading test scored on average the same mark that would be gained by random guessing.

The oldest university in Ghana, the University of Ghana, which was founded in 1948, had a total of about 29,754 students in 2008.[52] Since Ghana’s independence, the country has been one of the educational hot spots in Sub-Saharan Africa and has played host to notables such as President Robert Mugabe of Zimbabwe, Alhaji Sir Dauda Jawara of The Gambia and Cyprian Ekwensi of Nigeria among others. Former UN Secretary General Kofi Annan has been chancellor of the University of Ghana since 2008.

Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, the second university to be established in Ghana, is the premier university of science and technology in Ghana and the West Africa sub region.
[edit] International rankings
Main article: International rankings of Ghana
Organization Survey Ranking
Institute for Economics and Peace [3] Global Peace Index[53] 52 out of 144
Heritage Foundation/The Wall Street Journal Index of Economic Freedom 91 out of 157[54]
Reporters Without Borders Worldwide Press Freedom Index 31 out of 173[55]
Transparency International Corruption Perception Index 69 out of 179[56]
United Nations Development Programme Human Development Index 135 out of 177[57]
Vision of Humanity Global Peace Index 40 out of 121[58]
World Economic Forum Global Competitiveness Report not ranked[59]
[edit] See also
Flag of Ghana.svg Ghana portal
Main articles: Outline of Ghana and Index of Ghana-related articles

* Transport in Ghana

[edit] References

1. ^ Emefa.myserver.org
2. ^ Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division (2010) (PDF). World Population Prospects, Table A.1. 2008 revision. United Nations. http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2008/wpp2008_text_tables.pdf. Retrieved 2009-03-12.
3. ^ a b c d “Ghana”. International Monetary Fund. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2010/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2007&ey=2010&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=652&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=62&pr.y=10. Retrieved 2010-06-24.
4. ^ Jackson, John G. Introduction to African Civilizations, 2001. Page 201.
5. ^ MacLean, Iain. Rational Choice and British Politics: An Analysis of Rhetoric and Manipulation from Peel to Blair, 2001. Page 76.
6. ^ Peter N. Stearns and William Leonard Langer. The Encyclopedia of World History: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern, Chronologically Arranged, 2001. Pages 813, 1050.
7. ^ “Ghana – MSN Encarta”. Ghana – MSN Encarta. http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761570799/Ghana.html. , encarta.msn.com
8. ^ “NEWS.BBC.co.uk”. NEWS.BBC.co.uk. 2010-02-09. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/country_profiles/1023355.stm. Retrieved 2010-06-26.
9. ^ “Geography.about.com”. Geography.about.com. http://geography.about.com/library/cia/blcghana.htm. Retrieved 2010-06-26.
10. ^ “Ghana – MSN Encarta”. Ghana – MSN Encarta. http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761570799/Ghana.html. , Encarta.msn.com
11. ^ “Ghana – MSN Encarta”. Ghana – MSN Encarta. http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761570799_8/Ghana.html#s66.
12. ^ Slavery. Encyclopædia Britannica’s Guide to Black History.
13. ^ a b “Ghana – MSN Encarta”. Ghana – MSN Encarta. http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761570799_8/Ghana.html#p78.
14. ^ Bush Praises Strong Leadership of Ghanaian President Kufuor. America.gov. September 15, 2008.
15. ^ a b c Encarta.msn.com, Webcitation.org, Archived 2009-10-31.
16. ^ “The history of Ghana – Google Books”. Books.google.com. http://books.google.com/books?id=T9io2oPOAXAC&pg=PA92&lpg=PA92&dq=ugcc+ghana+self+governance&source=bl&ots=3TYg6W5eaA&sig=q4U6m1yqQEXsQjAklzT4r06hS3I&hl=en&ei=fJNWSt3yCoSAMr_u2Z0I&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2. Retrieved 2010-06-26.
17. ^ “Ghana Flag”. Ghanaweb.com. http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/republic/flag.php. Retrieved 2010-06-26.
18. ^ “Ghana – MSN Encarta”. Ghana – MSN Encarta. http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761570799_10/Ghana.html.
19. ^ “BBC: Opposition leader wins Ghana poll – modernghana.com/ghana elections”. Modernghana.com. http://www.modernghana.com/news/197296/1/bbc-opposition-leader-wins-ghana-poll.html. Retrieved 2010-06-26.
20. ^ “Thousands celebrate as new president takes office”. The Guardian. 8 January 2009. http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009/jan/08/world-news-in-brief.
21. ^ “Foreignpolicy.com” (PDF). http://www.foreignpolicy.com/images/090624_2009_final_data.pdf. Retrieved 2010-06-26.
22. ^ “Welcome to the Mo Ibrahim Foundation”. Moibrahimfoundation.org. http://www.moibrahimfoundation.org/. Retrieved 2010-06-26.
23. ^ a b c d e “Government and Politics”. A Country Study: Ghana (La Verle Berry, editor). Library of Congress Federal Research Division (November 1994). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. Lcweb2.loc.gov
24. ^ [1] Human Development Indices, Table 3: Human and income poverty, p. 35. Retrieved on 1 June 2009
25. ^ “Obama’s Ghana trip sends message across Africa”. CNN. 10 July 2009. http://www.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/africa/07/10/ghana.obama/index.html.
26. ^ “Aluworks.com”. Aluworks.com. http://www.aluworks.com/site/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=63&Itemid=60&734e1554a786d82e908c7c85044123c2=746b376516a36724613692ecab763f6f. Retrieved 2010-06-26.
27. ^ The World Factbook
28. ^ Ghana leader: Oil reserves at 3B barrels – Yahoo! News
29. ^ “Kosmos Makes Second Oil Discovery Offshore Ghana”. Rigzone.com. 2008-02-25. http://www.rigzone.com/news/article.asp?a_id=57319. Retrieved 2010-06-26.
30. ^ a b c [2][dead link]
31. ^ “Ghana – MSN Encarta”. Ghana – MSN Encarta. http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761570799_5/Ghana.html. , encarta.msn.com
32. ^ Extreme points of Earth
33. ^ “Ghana – MSN Encarta”. Ghana – MSN Encarta. http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761570799_2/Ghana.html.
34. ^ a b “International Religious Freedom Report 2007″. U.S. Department of State. http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90100.htm. Retrieved 5 December 2009.
35. ^ a b “CIA – The World Factbook – Ghana”. U.S. CIA. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/gh.html. Retrieved 5 December 2009.
36. ^ a b CIA.gov
37. ^ a b “Afro.who.int”. Afro.who.int. http://www.afro.who.int/home/countries/fact_sheets/ghana.pdf. Retrieved 2010-06-26.
38. ^ LaVerle Berry, ed (1995). Ghana: A Country Study. Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. pp. 81–82. ISBN 0844408352. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/ghtoc.html.
39. ^ Hausa language
40. ^ Kenyon, Matthew (2009-10-16). “NEWS.BBC.co.uk”. NEWS.BBC.co.uk. http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/africa/8311196.stm. Retrieved 2010-06-26.
41. ^ “USA 1-2 Ghana (aet)”. NEWS.BBC.co.uk. 2009-06-26. http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/world_cup_2010/matches/match_50. Retrieved 2010-06-26.
42. ^ “Ghana: Kofi Ghanaba – Influential Drummer Who Emphasised the African Origins of Jazz”. Ghanaian Chronicle. 12 February 2009. http://allafrica.com/stories/200902120888.html. Retrieved 2009-05-30.
43. ^ Constitution of Ghana, Government of Ghana.
44. ^ Anokwa, K. (1997). In Press Freedom and Communication in Africa. Erbio, F. & Jong-Ebot, W. (Eds.) Africa World Press. ISBN 978-0865435513.
45. ^ Ghanian Media, Press Reference.
46. ^ BBC Country Profile: Ghana, BBC News.
47. ^ GJA congratulates President Atta Mills, Joy Radio, January 11, 2009.
48. ^ a b c d e f NAB.gov.gh[dead link]
49. ^ “TobeWorldwide.org”. http://www.tobeworldwide.org/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_view&gid=4. Retrieved 2010-06-26.
50. ^ “This page is available to GlobePlus subscribers”. Theglobeandmail.com. http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/a-fragile-island-of-stabilityin-a-sea-of-turbulence/article1214628/. Retrieved 2010-06-26.
51. ^ a b “Ghana News :: ”’Obama:”’ What is the agenda for education in Ghana? ::: Breaking News | News in Ghana | features”. News.myjoyonline.com. 2009-07-10. http://news.myjoyonline.com/features/200907/32516.asp. Retrieved 2010-06-26.
52. ^ “University of Ghana”. Ug.edu.gh. http://www.ug.edu.gh/index1.php?linkid=243&sublinkid=72. Retrieved 2010-06-26.
53. ^ “Vision of Humanity”. Vision of Humanity. http://www.visionofhumanity.org/gpi/home.php. Retrieved 2010-02-04.
54. ^ “Heritage Foundation – 2007 Index of Economic Freedom”. Official Website for the Index. The Wall Street Journal and The Heritage Foundation. Archived from the original on 2008-02-13. http://web.archive.org/web/20080213211732/http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/countries.cfm. Retrieved 2007-02-24. “The highest form of economic freedom provides an absolute right of property ownership, fully realised freedoms of movement for labour, capital, and goods, and an absolute absence of coercion or constraint of economic liberty beyond the extent necessary for citizens to protect and maintain liberty itself. In other words, individuals are free to work, produce, consume, and invest in any way they please, and that freedom is both protected by the state and unconstrained by the state.”
55. ^ “Reporters Without Borders – Worldwide Press Freedom Index 2008″. Annual Worldwide Press Freedom Index. Reporters sans frontières. http://www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=29031. Retrieved 2009-01-12.
56. ^ “Corruption Perception Index 2007″. Official Website. Transparency International e.V. http://www.transparency.org/policy_research/surveys_indices/cpi/2007. Retrieved 2007-12-11.
57. ^ “Human Development Report 2006″ (PDF). Annual Report. United Nations Development Programme. Archived from the original on 2007-10-29. http://web.archive.org/web/20071029110409/http://hdr.undp.org/hdr2006/statistics/documents/hdi2004.pdf. Retrieved 2007-02-24.
58. ^ “Global Peace Index Rankings”. Global Peace and Sustainability. Economist Intelligence Unit, Centre for Peace and Conflict Studies, University of Sydney, Australia and some Peace Institutes and Think Tanks. http://www.visionofhumanity.com/rankings/. Retrieved 2007-05-30.
59. ^ “Table 1: Global Competitiveness Index rankings and 2005 comparisons” (PDF). World Economic Forum – Global Competitiveness Report 2006 – 2007. World Economic Forum. http://www.weforum.org/pdf/Global_Competitiveness_Reports/Reports/gcr_2006/gcr2006_rankings.pdf. Retrieved 2007-02-24.

[edit] External links
Find more about Ghana on Wikipedia’s sister projects:
Definitions from Wiktionary
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Quotations from Wikiquote
Source texts from Wikisource
Images and media from Commons
News stories from Wikinews
Learning resources from Wikiversity

Government

* Ghana official Website, Ghana.gov.gh
* The Parliament of Ghana official site, parliament.gh
* National Commission on Culture official site, ghanaculture.gov.gh
* Chief of State and Cabinet Members, cia.gov

General information

* Country Profile from BBC News, news.bbc.co.uk
* Ghana from Encyclopaedia Britannica, britannica.com
* Ghana entry at The World Factbook
* Ghana from UCB Libraries GovPubs, ucblibraries.Colorado.eu
* Ghana at the Open Directory Project
* Wikimedia Atlas of Ghana
* The African Activist Archive Project website has photographs of the All Africa People’s Conference held in Accra, Ghana, December 5–13, 1958 including Kwame Nkrumah, Prime Minister of Ghana, addressing the conference, the American Committee on Africa delegation meeting with Nkrumah, and of Patrick Duncan and Alfred Hutchinson of South Africa at the conference.

Health

* Unite For Sight at Buduburam Refugee Camp, Ghana A Unite For Sight video documentary with interviews of residents at Buduburam Refugee Camp, Ghana. Unite For Sight provides free eye care for the residents. video.google.com
* Ghana Eye Foundation A Non Governmental Organisation to create awareness and mobilise resources to support the provision of a sustainable, equitable and quality eye health service by well-trained and appropriately motivated personnel to all residents in Ghana.

Other

* Ghana: An Annotated List of Books and Other Resources for Teaching About Ghana
* Proverbs from Ghana
* Business Anti-Corruption Portal Ghana Country Profile
* Rural poverty in Ghana (IFAD)
* Ghanawaves – A web radio for ghanaian citizens living abroad that covers news, politics, sports and pop culture.

[show]

Articles Related to Ghana

Flag Coat of arms
Motto: Libertad o muerte (Spanish)
“Freedom or Death”
Anthem: Himno Nacional Uruguayo (Spanish)
Capital
(and largest city) Montevideo
34°53′S 56°10′W / 34.883°S 56.167°W / -34.883; -56.167
Official language(s) Spanish
Ethnic groups 88% White, 8% Mestizo, 4% Black, Amerindian (Practically nonexistent)[1]
Demonym Uruguayan
Government Presidential republic
– President José Mujica
– Vice President Danilo Astori
Independence from Empire of Brazil
– Declaration August 25, 1825
– Constitution July 18, 1830
Area
– Total 176,215 km2 (90th)
68,037 sq mi
– Water (%) 1.5%
Population
– 2009 estimate 3,494,382[1] (131st)
– 2002 census 3,399,236
– Density 19.8/km2 (195th)
51.4/sq mi
GDP (PPP) 2009 estimate
– Total $44.029 billion[2]
– Per capita $13,163[2]
GDP (nominal) 2009 estimate
– Total $31.528 billion[2]
– Per capita $9,425[2]
Gini (2006) 45.2[3] (high)
HDI (2007) ▲ 0.865 (high) (50th)
Currency Uruguayan peso ($, UYU) (UYU)
Time zone UYT (UTC-3)
– Summer (DST) UYST (UTC-2)
Drives on the right
Internet TLD .uy
Calling code +598

Uruguay (pronounced /ˈjʊərəɡwaɪ/ ( listen)[citation needed], Spanish pronunciation: [uɾuˈɣwai]), officially the Oriental Republic of Uruguay[1][4] (Spanish: República Oriental del Uruguay, pronounced [reˈpuβlika oɾjenˈtal del uɾuˈɣwai]), is a country located in the southeastern part of South America. It is home to some 3.5 million people,[1] of whom 1.4 million live in the capital Montevideo and its metropolitan area. An estimated 88% of the population are of European descent.[5]

Uruguay’s only land border is with Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, to the north. To the west lies the Uruguay River, to the southwest lies the estuary of Río de la Plata, with Argentina only a short commute across the banks of either of these bodies of water, while to the southeast lies the southern part of the Atlantic Ocean. Uruguay, with an area of approximately 176 thousand km2, is the second smallest nation of South America in area after Suriname.

Colonia del Sacramento, one of Uruguay’s oldest European settlements, was founded by the Portuguese in 1680. Montevideo was founded by the Spanish in the early 18th century as a military stronghold. Uruguay won its independence in 1811–1828 following a three-way struggle among Spain, Argentina and Brazil. It is a constitutional democracy, where the president fulfills the roles of both head of state and head of government.

Uruguay is one of the most economically developed countries in South America, with a high GDP per capita and the 50th highest quality of life in the world. The economy is largely based on agriculture (making up 10% of GDP and the most substantial export) and the state sector. According to Transparency International, Uruguay is rated as the least corrupt country in Latin America (along with Chile),[6] with its political and labour conditions being among the freest on the continent.[1]

In 2007, it became the first Latin American country to legalize same-sex and different-sex civil unions at a national level.[7]
Contents
[hide]

* 1 Etymology
* 2 History
o 2.1 Pre-Columbian times and colonization
o 2.2 Struggle for independence
o 2.3 “Guerra Grande” 1839–1852
o 2.4 War of the Triple Alliance
o 2.5 Social and economic developments up to 1890
o 2.6 20th century
o 2.7 Modern era
* 3 Geography and climate
o 3.1 Geography
o 3.2 Climate
o 3.3 Departments
* 4 Economy
o 4.1 Agriculture
* 5 Politics
* 6 Demographics
o 6.1 Ethnicity
o 6.2 Demographic distribution
o 6.3 Language
* 7 Transportation
o 7.1 Road
o 7.2 Rail
o 7.3 Water
o 7.4 Air
* 8 Telecommunications
* 9 Culture
o 9.1 Arts
o 9.2 Music
o 9.3 Literature
o 9.4 Religion
o 9.5 Cuisine
o 9.6 Sport
o 9.7 Education
* 10 Estancia tourism
* 11 International rankings
* 12 References
* 13 External links
* 14 Related information

[edit] Etymology

Translated into English, República Oriental del Uruguay becomes Oriental Republic of Uruguay. The Oriental Republic of Uruguay is named after its geographic location to the east of the Uruguay River. hi The word Uruguay, coming from the Guaraní language, means “river where the painted birds live”.[8] Since the word “orient” is derived from the Latin word oriens, meaning east, this caused the Uruguayans to be called “orientals”, even though Uruguay is situated in the Western Hemisphere.
[edit] History
Main article: History of Uruguay
[edit] Pre-Columbian times and colonization
River Plate Indians with Boleadoras (Hendrick Ottsen, 1603)

The only documented inhabitants of Uruguay before European colonization of the area were the Charrua, a small tribe driven south by the Guaraní of Paraguay. There have also been identified examples of ancient rock art, at locations such as Chamangá, and elsewhere.

The Spanish arrived in the territory of present-day Uruguay in 1516, but the people’s fierce resistance to conquest, combined with the absence of gold and silver, limited settlement in the region during the 16th and 17th centuries. Uruguay then became a zone of contention between the Spanish and the Portuguese empires. In 1603 the Spanish began to introduce cattle, which became a source of wealth in the region. The first permanent settlement on the territory of present-day Uruguay was founded by the Spanish in 1624 at Soriano on the Río Negro. In 1669–71, the Portuguese built a fort at Colonia del Sacramento. Spanish colonization increased as Spain sought to limit Portugal’s expansion of Brazil’s frontiers.

Montevideo was founded by the Spanish in the early 18th century as a military stronghold; its natural harbor soon developed into a commercial area competing with Argentina’s capital, Buenos Aires. Uruguay’s early 19th century history was shaped by ongoing fights between the British, Spanish, Portuguese, and colonial forces for dominance in the Platine region. In 1806 and 1807, the British army attempted to seize Buenos Aires as part of the Napoleonic Wars. As a result, at the beginning of 1807, Montevideo was occupied by a 10,000-strong British force who held it, until the middle of the year, when they left to attack Buenos Aires.
[edit] Struggle for independence
José Gervasio Artigas

In 1811, José Gervasio Artigas, who became Uruguay’s national hero, launched a successful revolution against the Spanish authorities, defeating them on May 18 at the Battle of Las Piedras. In 1814 he formed the Liga Federal (Federal League), of which he was declared Protector.

The constant growth of influence and prestige of the Federal League frightened the Portuguese Empire in Brazil (because of its republicanism). In August 1816, they invaded the Eastern Province (with Buenos Aires’s tacit complicity)[citation needed], with the intention of destroying the protector and his revolution. The Portuguese forces, thanks to their numerical and material superiority, occupied Montevideo on January 20, 1817, and finally after a struggle for three years in the countryside, defeated Artigas in the Battle of Tacuarembó.

In 1821, the Eastern Province (present-day Uruguay), was annexed by Brazil (as a part of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves), under the name of Província Cisplatina. The Brazilian Empire became independent from Portugal in 1822. In response to the annexation, the Thirty-Three Orientals led by Juan Antonio Lavalleja declared independence on August 25, 1825 supported by the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata (present-day Argentina).

This led to the 500-day Argentina-Brazil War. Neither side gained the upper hand, and in 1828 the Treaty of Montevideo, fostered by the United Kingdom, gave birth to Uruguay as an independent state. The nation’s first constitution was adopted on July 18, 1830. The remainder of the 19th century under a series of elected and appointed presidents saw interventions by — and conflicts with — neighboring states, political and economic fluctuations, and large inflows of immigrants, mostly from Europe.
[edit] “Guerra Grande” 1839–1852
Further information: Uruguayan Civil War
Manuel Oribe

The political scene in Uruguay became split between two parties, the conservative Blancos (“Whites”) and the liberal Colorados (“Reds”). The Colorados were led by Fructuoso Rivera and represented the business interests of Montevideo; the Blancos were headed by Manuel Oribe, who looked after the agricultural interests of the countryside and promoted protectionism. The two groups took their names from the color of the armbands that they wore; initially, the Colorados wore blue, but when it faded in the sun, they replaced it with red. The Uruguayan parties became associated with warring political factions in neighbouring Argentina.

The Colorados favored the exiled Argentinian liberal Unitarios, many of whom had taken refuge in Montevideo, while the Blanco president Manuel Oribe was a close friend of the Argentinian ruler Manuel de Rosas. Oribe took Rosas’s side when the French navy blockaded Buenos Aires in 1838. This led the Colorados and the exiled Unitarios to seek French backing against Oribe and on June 15, 1838, an army led by the Colorado leader Rivera overthrew the president, who fled to Argentina. The Argentinian Unitarians formed a government-in-exile in Montevideo and, with secret French encouragement, Rivera declared war on Rosas in 1839. The conflict would last thirteen years and become known as the “Guerra Grande” (the “Great War”).

In 1840, an army of exiled Unitarios attempted to invade northern Argentina from Uruguay but they had little success. In December 1842, President Joaquín Suárez formally abolished slavery. Two months later, an Argentinian army overran Uruguay on Oribe’s behalf. They seized most of the country but failed to take the capital. The siege of Montevideo, which began in February 1843, would last nine years and capture the world’s imagination. Alexandre Dumas, père compared it to a new Trojan War. The besieged Uruguayans called on resident foreigners for help and a French and an Italian legion were formed. The latter was led by the exiled Giuseppe Garibaldi, who was working as a mathematics teacher in Montevideo when the war broke out.
Battle of Caseros

Garibaldi was also made head of the Uruguayan navy. He was involved in many famous actions during the war, notably the Battle of San Antonio, which won him a worldwide reputation as a formidable guerrilla leader. The Argentinian blockade of Montevideo was ineffective as Rosas generally tried not to interfere with international shipping on the River Plate. But in 1845, when access to Paraguay was blocked, Britain and France allied against Rosas, seized his fleet and began a blockade of Buenos Aires, while Brazil joined in against Argentina.

Rosas reached peace deals with Great Britain and France in 1849 and 1850 respectively. The French agreed to withdraw their legion if Rosas evacuated Argentinian troops from Uruguay. Oribe still maintained a loose siege of the capital. In 1851, the Argentinian caudillo Justo José de Urquiza turned against Rosas and signed a pact with the exiled Unitarios, the Uruguayan Colorados and Brazil against him. Urquiza crossed into Uruguay, defeated Oribe and lifted the siege of Montevideo. He then overthrew Rosas at the Battle of Caseros on February 3, 1852. With Rosas’s defeat and exile, the “Guerra Grande” finally came to an end.
[edit] War of the Triple Alliance
Main article: War of the Triple Alliance

In 1855, new conflict broke out between the parties. It would reach its high point during the War of the Triple Alliance. In 1863, the Colorado general Venancio Flores organized an armed uprising against the Blanco president, Bernardo Prudencio Berro. Flores won backing from Brazil and, this time, from Argentina, who supplied him with troops and weapons, while Berro made an alliance with the Paraguayan leader Francisco Solano López.

When Berro’s government was overthrown in 1864 with Brazilian help, López used it as a pretext to declare war on Uruguay. The result was the War of the Triple Alliance, a five-year conflict in which Uruguayan, Brazilian and Argentinian armies fought Paraguay, and which Flores finally won, but only at the price of the loss of 95% of his own troops. Flores did not enjoy his Pyrrhic victory for long. In 1868, he was murdered on the same day as his rival Berro.

Both parties were weary of the chaos. In 1870, they came to an agreement to define spheres of influence: the Colorados would control Montevideo and the coastal region, the Blancos would rule the hinterland with its agricultural estates. In addition, the Blancos were paid half a million dollars to compensate them for the loss of their stake in Montevideo. But the caudillo mentality was difficult to erase from Uruguay and political feuding continued culminating in the Revolution of the Lances (Revolución de las Lanzas) (1870–1872), and later with the uprising of Aparicio Saravia, who was fatally injured at the Battle of Masoller (1904). hi
[edit] Social and economic developments up to 1890

After the “Guerra Grande” there was a sharp rise in the number of immigrants, above all from Italy and Spain. The number of immigrants had risen from 48% of the population in 1860 to 68% in 1868. In the 1870s, a further 100,000 Europeans arrived, so that by 1879 about 438,000 people were living in Uruguay, a quarter of them in Montevideo. In 1857, the first bank was opened; three years later a canal system was begun, the first telegraph line was set up, and rail links were built between the capital and the countryside.

The economy saw a steep upswing after the “Guerra Grande”, above all in livestock raising and export. Between 1860 and 1868, the number of sheep rose from three to seventeen million. The reason for this increase lay above all in the improved methods of husbandry introduced by European immigrants.

Montevideo became a major economic centre of the region. Thanks to its natural harbour, it became an entrepôt for goods from Argentina, Brazil and Paraguay. The towns of Paysandú and Salto, both on the River Uruguay, also experienced similar development.
[edit] 20th century
Juan Idiarte Borda

Development accelerated during the latter part of the 19th century as increasing numbers of immigrants established businesses and bought land. Partly through their efforts, sheep were introduced to graze together with cattle, ranches were fenced, and pedigreed bulls and rams were imported to improve livestock. Earnings from wool (which became the leading export in 1884), hides, and dried beef encouraged the British to invest in railroad building and also helped to modernize Montevideo, notably in its public utilities and transportation system—which thereby encouraged additional immigration.

In 1876, the Uruguayan armed forces took over the government and, aided by improved communications, began to establish firmer control over the interior. However, public support for the regime eventually waned because of the brutality and corruption of some of its leaders, and a civilian Colorado government returned to power in 1890.

Blanco’s demands for a larger role in government escalated into the Revolution of 1897, led by Aparicio Saravia, which ended when the Colorado president, Juan Idiarte Borda, was killed by an assassin not associated with the Blancos. Although conflicts between Colorados and Blancos continued to impede economic development, by 1900 Uruguay’s population grew to one million—a 13-fold increase over the level of 1830. The Colorado leader José Batlle y Ordóñez was elected president in 1903. The following year the Blancos led a rural revolt, and eight bloody months of fighting ensued before Saravia was killed in battle and government forces emerged victorious. In 1905 the Colorados won the first largely transparent legislative election in 30 years, and domestic stability was finally attained.

Batlle, who had become a Colorado hero, took advantage of the nation’s stability and growing economic prosperity to institute major reforms, including increasing state intervention in economic matters. His administration helped expand cattle ranching, reduce the nation’s dependence on imports and foreign capital, improve workers’ conditions through far-reaching social reforms, and expand education. In addition Batlle abolished the death penalty, allowed women to initiate divorce proceedings, augmented the rights of children born out of wedlock, and reduced the political influence of the Roman Catholic Church—reflecting growing trends toward social liberalization and secularization in Uruguay.

Batlle had two terms (1903–07 and 1911–15) in which to initiate his policies, but, realizing that his program might be reversed by a future president or dictator, he promoted a constitutional reform to end the presidency and replace it with a plural executive, the colegiado. Batlle’s audacious plan split the Colorados and reinvigorated the Blanco opposition, and in 1916 the colegiado was defeated in the country’s first election by secret ballot. Batlle retained a significant amount of prestige and support, however, which allowed him to strike a compromise that partly rescued the colegiado; thus, in a constitution promulgated in 1918, executive responsibility was split between the president and a National Council of Administration.

A consensus government emerged with policies that were more cautious than innovative, except in social legislation. Higher living standards were supported by a ranching economy that had stopped growing, a dilemma hidden by the high export prices of the late 1920s.

In 1930, Uruguay was chosen as the site of the first Football World Cup. Although the field was much smaller than the competitions of today, the event provided national pride when the home team won the tournament over neighboring Argentina.

In the late 1950s, partly because of a decrease in demand in the world market for agriculturial products, Uruguay began having economic problems, which included inflation, mass unemployment, and a steep drop in the standard of living for Uruguayan workers. This led to student militancy and labor unrest.

1950 also saw Uruguay win its second FIFA World Cup, defeating Brazil 2–1 in the competition’s final match to take spot in the championship group, an event that became known as the Maracanazo.

An urban guerrilla movement known as the Tupamaros formed in the early 1960s, first engaging in Robin Hood type protest activities,such as robbing banks and distributing the proceeds to the poor, and attempting political dialogue. As the government banned their political activities and the police became more oppressive, the Tupamaros took up overtly armed struggle, engaging in direct conflict with the police and kidnappings of corrupt officials and perceived enemies.[9]

The US Office of Public Safety (OPS) began operating in Uruguay in 1965. The US Office of Public Safety trained Uruguayan police and intelligence in policing and interrogration techniques.

President Jorge Pacheco declared a state of emergency in 1968, followed by a further suspension of civil liberties in 1972 by his successor, President Juan María Bordaberry, who brought in the Army to combat the guerrillas MLN, led by Raúl Sendic. After defeating the Tupamaros, the military seized power in 1973. A state of martial law was effectively used to decompose[clarification needed] the MLN (Movement of National Liberation). The MLN heads were isolated in improvised prisons. Bordaberry was finally removed from his “president charge” in 1976. He was first succeeded by Alberto Demicheli. Subsequently a national council chosen by the military government elected Aparicio Méndez.

In 1980, the army forces proposed a change in the constitution that would be passed with a referendum. The “No” to the constitution reforms won the vote with 57.2% of the votes, showing the unpopularity of the de facto government, that was later accelerated by an economic crisis. In 1981, General Gregorio Álvarez assumed the presidency.

In 1984, massive protests against military rule broke out. After a 24-hour general strike, talks began and the armed forces announced a plan for return to civilian rule. National elections were held in 1984; Colorado Party leader Julio María Sanguinetti won the presidency and, following the brief interim Presidency of Rafael Addiego Bruno, served from 1985 to 1990. The first Sanguinetti administration implemented economic reforms and consolidated democratization following the country’s years under military rule. Nonetheless, Sanguinetti never supported the human rights claims, and his government didn’t prosecute the rebels, terrorists, or military leaders who were accused of killings and torture. Instead, he opted for a more peaceful option, signing an amnesty treaty called in Spanish “Ley de Amnistia”.
[edit] Modern era
A recycle wagon horse ready for a day of work in Montevideo.

Sanguinetti’s economic reforms, focusing on the attraction of foreign trade and capital, achieved some success and stabilized the economy. In order to promote national reconciliation and facilitate the return of democratic civilian rule, Sanguinetti secured public approval by plebiscite of a controversial general amnesty for military leaders accused of committing human rights violations under the military regime and sped the release of former guerrillas.

The National Party’s Luis Alberto Lacalle won the 1989 presidential election and served from 1990 to 1995. President Lacalle executed major economic structural reforms and pursued further liberalization of trade regimes, including Uruguay’s inclusion in the Southern Cone Common Market (MERCOSUR) in 1991. Despite economic growth during Lacalle’s term, adjustment and privatization efforts provoked political opposition, and some reforms were overturned by referendum.

In the 1994 elections, former President Sanguinetti won a new term, which ran from 1995 until March 2000. As no single party had a majority in the General Assembly, the National Party joined with Sanguinetti’s Colorado Party in a coalition government. The Sanguinetti government continued Uruguay’s economic reforms and integration into MERCOSUR. Other important reforms were aimed at improving the electoral system, social security, education, and public safety. The economy grew steadily for most of Sanguinetti’s term until low commodity prices and economic difficulties in its main export markets caused a recession in 1999, which has continued into 2002.

The 1999 national elections were held under a new electoral system established by a 1996 constitutional amendment. Primaries in April decided single presidential candidates for each party, and national elections on October 31 determined representation in the legislature. As no presidential candidate received a majority in the October election, a runoff was held in November. In the runoff, Colorado Party candidate Jorge Batlle, aided by the support of the National Party, defeated Broad Front candidate Tabaré Vázquez.
Plaza Independencia (Independence Square)

The Colorado and National Parties continued their legislative coalition, as neither party by itself won as many seats as the 40% of each house won by the Broad Front coalition. The formal coalition ended in November 2002, when the Blancos withdrew their ministers from the cabinet, although the Blancos continued to support the Colorados on most issues.

Batlle’s five-year term was marked by economic recession and uncertainty, first with the 1999 devaluation of the Brazilian real, then with the outbreaks of foot-and-mouth disease (aftosa) in Uruguay’s key beef sector in 2001, and finally with the political and economic collapse of Argentina. Unemployment rose to close to twenty percent, real wages fell, the peso was devalued and the percentage of Uruguayans in poverty reached almost forty percent. These worsening economic conditions played a part in turning public opinion against the free market economic policies adopted by the Batlle administration and its predecessors, leading to popular rejection through plebiscites of proposals for privatization of the state petroleum company in 2003 and of the state water company in 2004.

In 2004 Uruguayans elected Tabaré Vázquez as president, while giving the Broad Front (coalition of socialists, communists, Tupamaros, former communists and social democrats) a majority in both houses of Parliament. The newly elected government, while pledging to continue payments on Uruguay’s external debt, has also promised to undertake a crash jobs programs to attack the widespread problems of poverty and unemployment. During the Vazquez administration former president Juan Maria Bordaberry and General Gregorio Alzarez would be incarcerated for human rights abuses committed during the 1970s’. Investigations commenced after the publication of the book “Los Años Oscuros 1967-1987″ by Northamerican historian Scott Myers.

In 2009 the Broad Front won the election for second time. Left coalition maintained the majority in both houses of Parliament and José Mujica emerged as the new President of Uruguay.

Known as “El Pepe”, (born May 20, 1935) Mujica is a Uruguayan politician and former guerrilla fighter, a member of the Broad Front (left-wing coalition) and current President of Uruguay. He lives on an austere farm in the outskirts of Montevideo, the country’s capital.

Mujica was Minister of Livestock, Agriculture, and Fisheries from 2005 to 2008 and a Senator afterwards. He won the presidential election and took office as President on 1 March 2010.
[edit] Geography and climate
Satellite image of Uruguay.
Cabo Polonio, departamento de Rocha, Uruguay.
A carob tree orchard next to Route 3 in the department of Paysandú, Uruguay.
Main article: Geography of Uruguay
[edit] Geography

At 176,214 km2 (68,037 sq mi) of continental land 142,199 km2 (54,903 sq mi) of jurisdictional water and small river islands,[10] Uruguay is the second smallest sovereign nation in South America (after Suriname) and the third smallest territory (French Guiana is the smallest). The landscape features mostly rolling plains and low hill ranges (cuchillas) with a fertile coastal lowland.

A dense fluvial network covers the country, consisting of four river basins or deltas; the Río de la Plata, the Uruguay River, the Laguna Merín and the Río Negro. The major internal river is the Río Negro (‘black river’). Several lagoons are found along the Atlantic coast.

The highest point in the country is the Cerro Catedral at 514 metres (1,686 ft) in the Sierra Carapé hill range. To the southwest is the Río de Plata, the estuary of the Uruguay River, which forms the western border, and the Paraná River.

A longstanding border dispute with Brazil involving territory in the north of Uruguay has not harmed close diplomatic relations with Brazil in years. Montevideo is the southernmost capital city in the Americas, and the third most southerly in the world (only Canberra and Wellington are further south).
[edit] Climate
Main article: Climate of Uruguay
Maldonado bay

The climate in Uruguay is temperate: it has warm to hot summers and cool to cold winters (variable weather). The predominantly gently undulating landscape is somewhat vulnerable to rapid changes from weather fronts. It receives the periodic influence of the polar air in winter, and tropical air from Brazil in summer. Without mountains to act as a barrier, the air masses freely move by the territory, causing abrupt weather changes.

Snow is not very common (most important events were in 1962 and 1991), though winter sees regular frosts. One of the coldest winters (since 1951) was 2007: July averaged 7–8 °C (45–46 °F) in Montevideo, and 6–7 °C (43–45 °F) in Florida city.

National extreme temperatures sea level are, Paysandú city 44.0°C (01-20-1943) and Melo city -11.0°C (06-14-1967).[11]
[edit] Departments
Main article: Departments of Uruguay

Uruguay consists of nineteen departments (departamentos, singular “departamento”). The first departments were formed in 1816 and the newest, Flores, dates from 1885. The departments are governed by an intendente municipal who is elected for five years. The members of the Departmental Assembly (Junta Departamental) form the legislative level of the department.
Map of the departments of Uruguay in alphabetical order.
Paysandú
Department Area (square kilometres) Population* Capital
- 1Artigas 11,928 79,317 Artigas
- 2Canelones 4,536 509,095 Canelones
- 3Cerro Largo 13,648 89,383 Melo
- 4Colonia 6,106 120,855 Colonia del Sacramento
- 5Durazno 11,643 60,926 Durazno
- 6Flores 5,144 25,609 Trinidad
- 7Florida 10,417 69,968 Florida
- 8Lavalleja 10,016 61,883 Minas
-9 Maldonado 4,793 147,391 Maldonado
- 10Montevideo 530 1,342,474 Montevideo
-11 Paysandú 13,922 115,623 Paysandú
-12 Río Negro 9,282 55,657 Fray Bentos
- 13Rivera 9,370 109,267 Rivera
-14 Rocha 10,551 70,614 Rocha
-15 Salto 14,163 126,745 Salto
-16 San José 4,992 107,644 San José de Mayo
-17 Soriano 9,008 87,073 Mercedes
-18 Tacuarembó 15,438 94,613 Tacuarembó
-19 Treinta y Tres 9,676 49,769 Treinta y Tres
* 2007
[edit] Economy
Main article: Economy of Uruguay
World Trade Center

Uruguay’s economy relies heavily on trade, particularly in agricultural exports, leaving the country vulnerable to fluctuations in commodity prices. After averaging growth of 5% annually in 1996–1998, in 1999–2001 the economy suffered from lower demand in Argentina and Brazil, which combined account for nearly half of Uruguay’s exports. Despite the severity of the trade shocks, Uruguay’s financial indicators remained more stable than those of its neighbours, a reflection of its solid reputation among investors and its investment-grade sovereign bond rating—one of only two in South America.[12] In recent years Uruguay has shifted some of its energy into developing the commercial use of technologies and has become the first exporter of software in Latin America.[13]

A worsening economic condition played a part in turning public opinion against the mildly free market economic policies adopted by the previous administrations in the 1990s, leading to the popular rejection of proposals for privatization of the state petroleum company in 2003 and of the state water company in 2004. The newly elected Frente Amplio government, while pledging to continue payments on Uruguay’s external debt,[14] has also promised to undertake an emergency plan to attack the widespread problems of poverty and unemployment.[15] In May 2008, the unemployment rate was below 7.2%. In October 2009, the unemployment rate was 6.4 percent.[16]
[edit] Agriculture
Main article: Agriculture of Uruguay

Agriculture played such an important part in Uruguayan history and national identity until the middle of the twentieth century that the entire country was sometimes likened to a single huge estancia (agricultural estate) centered around Montevideo, where the wealth generated in the hinterland was spent, at its administrative head.

Today, agriculture contributes roughly 11% to the country’s GDP and is still the main foreign exchange earner, putting Uruguay in line with other agricultural exporters like Brazil, Canada, and New Zealand. Uruguay is a member of the Cairns Group of exporters of agricultural products. Uruguay’s agriculture has relatively low inputs of labor, technology, and capital compared to other similar countries, which results in comparatively lower yields per hectare but also opens the door for Uruguay to market its products as “natural” or “organic.”

Estancia tourism has developed recently, showcasing Uruguay’s gaucho culture, historic Estancias, and natural resources.
[edit] Politics
Main article: Politics of Uruguay
Legislative Palace, Montevideo

Uruguay is a multiparty presidential representative democratic republic, under which the President of Uruguay is both the head of state and the head of government. The president exercises executive power with his cabinet. Legislative power is vested in the two chambers of the General Assembly of Uruguay. The Judiciary branch is independent from that of the executive and legislature.

The Colorado and National parties have been locked in a power struggle throughout most of Uruguay’s history. The elections of 2004, however, brought the Broad Front, a coalition of socialists, former Tupamaros, communists, social democrats, and Christian Democrats among others to power with majorities in both houses of parliament. A majority vote elected President Tabaré Vázquez.

Uruguay adopted its first constitution in 1830, following the conclusion of a three year war in which Argentina and Uruguay fought as a regional federation: the United Provinces of Río de la Plata. Sponsored by the United Kingdom, the 1828 Treaty of Montevideo built the foundations for a Uruguayan state and constitution.

For most of Uruguay’s history, the Partido Colorado has been the government. The other “traditional” party of Uruguay, Partido Blanco has ruled only twice. The Partido Blanco has its roots in the countryside and the original settlers of Spanish origin and the cattle ranchers. The Partido Colorado has its roots in the port city of Montevideo, the new immigrants of Italian origin and the backing of foreign interests.
Tabaré Vázquez, former president of Uruguay and President of Brazil Luiz Inacio Lula Da Silva

The Partido Colorado built a welfare state financed by taxing cattle revenue.[citation needed] The elections of 2004, however, brought the Frente Amplio, a coalition of socialists, communists, Tupamaros, former communists and social democrats among others to govern with majorities in both houses of parliament and the election of President Tabaré Vázquez by an absolute majority.[17] The Reporters Without Borders worldwide press freedom index has ranked Uruguay as 43rd of 173 reported countries in 2008.[18]

According to Freedom House, an American organization that tracks global trends in political freedom, Uruguay ranked twenty-seventh in its “Freedom in the World” index. According to the Economist Intelligence Unit, Uruguay scores an 8.08 in the Democracy Index, located in the 23rd position among the 30 countries considered to be Full Democracies in the world. The report looks at 60 indicators across five categories: Free elections, civil liberties, functioning government, political participation and political culture.[19]

Uruguay ranks 25th in the World Corruption Perceptions Index composed by Transparency International.[20]

The Uruguayan Constitution allows citizens to repeal laws or to change the constitution by referendum. During the last 15 years the method has been used several times; to confirm a law renouncing prosecution of members of the military who violated human rights during the military regime (1973–1985), to stop privatization of public utilities companies, to defend pensioners’ incomes, and to protect water resources.[citation needed]
Uruguay’s president José Mujica

Attempts to reform the constitution in 1966 led to the adoption of a sixth and an entirely new document in 1967. Uruguay’s Constitution of 1967 created a strong presidency, subject to legislative and judicial balance. Many of these provisions were suspended in 1973 but reestablished in 1985. A constitution proposed under a military revolution in 1980 was rejected by a vote of the entire electorate.

The president, who is both the head of state and the head of government, is elected by popular vote for a five-year term, with the vice president elected on the same ticket. Thirteen cabinet ministers, appointed by the president, head various executive departments. The General Assembly (Asamblea General) has two chambers.

The Chamber of Deputies (Cámara de Diputados) has 99 members, elected for a five year term by proportional representation. The Chamber of Senators (Cámara de Senadores) has 31 members; 30 members are elected for a five year term by proportional representation and the Vice-president who presides over it.

The Supreme Court is the highest court in the land. Its judges are elected for 10-year terms by the General Assembly. Below the Supreme Court are appellate and lower courts, as well as justices of the peace. There are also electoral and administrative (“contentious”) courts, an accounts court, and a military justice system.
[edit] Demographics
Flag of Uruguay.svg
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Uruguay
Further information: Demographics of Uruguay
[edit] Ethnicity

Uruguayans share a Spanish linguistic and cultural background with its neighbour country Argentina. Also, like Argentina, most Uruguayans are descended from colonial-era settlers and immigrants from Europe with almost 88% of the population being of European descent.[21]

The majority of these are Spaniards and Italians, followed by the French, Germans, Portuguese, British (English or Scots), Armenians, Maltese, Irish, Swiss, Russians, Poles, Croats, Bulgarians, Hungarians, Ukrainians, Lithuanians, Estonians, Latvians, Swedish, Danish, Dutch, Belgians, Austrians, Greeks, Scandinavians and Turkish. There are also smaller numbers of Georgian and Lebanese people.

Many colonies such as Nueva Helvecia-Colonia Suiza (Swiss colony) and Colonia Valdense (Piedmontese colony), are located in the department of Colonia. Also, there are towns founded by early British settlers, like Conchillas and Barker. A Russian colony called San Javier, is found in the department of Río Negro. Also there are Mennonite colonies in the department of Río Negro and in the department of Canelones. One of them, called El Ombú, is famous for its well-known Dulce de Leche “Claldy”, and is located near the city of Young.

Many of the European immigrants arrived in Uruguay in the late 1800s and have heavily influenced the architecture and culture of Montevideo and other major cities. For this reason, Montevideo and life within the city are very reminiscent of Western Europe.

Approximately 6% of the population is Mestizo, while Afro-Uruguayans form 4% and about 1% or 2% are of Asian descent, mostly Lebanese/Syrian Arab and Chinese or Japanese ancestry. Amerindians make up a small population in the rural North-West region.
[edit] Demographic distribution

Metropolitan Montevideo, with about one and a half million inhabitants, is the capital and largest city. The rest of the urban population lives in about 20 towns and cities. Montevideo is about 200 kilometers (124 miles) away from Buenos Aires in neighboring Argentina.

Uruguay is distinguished by its high literacy rate (97.3%) and a large urban middle class. During the 1970s and 1980s, an estimated six-hundred thousand Uruguayans emigrated, principally to Spain, Italy, Argentina and Brazil. Other Uruguayans went to various countries in Europe, Australia and the USA.

As a result of the low birth rate, high life expectancy, and relatively high rate of emigration of younger people, Uruguay’s population is quite mature. In 2006, the country had a birth rate of 13.91 births per thousand population, lower than neighboring countries Argentina (16.73 births/1000 population)[3] and Brazil (16.56 births/1,000 population).

Church and state are officially separated. While the Government keeps no statistics concerning religious affiliation, a 2004 survey published in the daily newspaper El Pais reported that 54% of those interviewed described themselves as Roman Catholics, 11% as Protestants, 9% as believers without a religious affiliation, and 26% as nonbelievers.[22]

Although the majority of Uruguayans do not actively practice a religion, they are nominally members of the Catholic Church and other communities. Political observers consider Uruguay as the most secular country in South America.[23]

Uruguay has a traditional mixed economy welfare state program since the 1990s.

Cultural and linguistic similarities, coupled with the short distances between Uruguayan cities and the Argentine capital of Buenos Aires, have encouraged many very talented Uruguayans to settle in Argentina. Some famous Uruguayans who excelled in Argentina are entrepreneur and financier Juan Navarro, sports journalist Victor Hugo Morales, singer and actress Natalia Oreiro, football/soccer players Antonio Alzamendi, Enzo Francescoli and Carlos Goyen, actress China Zorrilla, Carlos Perciavalle, cartoonist Hermenegildo Sábat and journalist Luis César Avilés.

Emigration to the United States also rose recently, but remains a small part of the US Hispanic population. The majority of Uruguayans in the US live in Miami, New Jersey, and Washington, D.C..
[edit] Language
Main article: Rioplatense Spanish

Uruguayan Spanish has some modifications due to the considerable number of Italian immigrants. As is the case with neighboring Argentina, Uruguay employs both voseo and yeismo (with [ʃ] or [ʒ]). English is common in the business world, and its study has risen significantly in recent years, especially among the youth. However, it is still a minority language, as are French and Italian. Other languages include Portuguese and Portuñol, a mixture of Spanish and Portuguese. Both are spoken in the northern regions near the Brazilian border. As the country contains only a few odd Amerindians, no indigenous languages are thought to remain in Uruguay.[24]
[edit] Transportation
Main article: Transport in Uruguay
The current vehicle registration plate design was introduced in the 2000s. The departments previously issued their own plates, each with a unique design.
[edit] Road

Paved roads connect Montevideo to other urban centers in the country, the main highways leading to the border and neighboring cities. Numerous unpaved roads connect farms and small towns. Overland trade has increased markedly since Mercosur (Southern Common Market) was formed in the 1990s. Most of the country’s domestic freight and passenger service is by road rather than rail.
[edit] Rail
Main article: Rail transport in Uruguay

The basic railroad network, purchased from the British after World War I, is outdated and no longer in use except for a small line that runs from Montevideo to San José passing through the cities of Las Piedras and Canelones (as of February 2009).
[edit] Water

Oceangoing ships call mainly at Montevideo. Vessels of various sizes navigate the inland waters, and a hydrofoil service connects Buenos Aires and both Montevideo and Colonia del Sacramento across the Río de la Plata.
[edit] Air

An international airport lies near the Carrasco beach resort some 13 miles (21 km) from downtown Montevideo. The government-owned airline, Primeras Líneas Uruguayas de Navegación Aérea (PLUNA), links Montevideo with some international destinations.
[edit] Telecommunications
Main article: Communications in Uruguay

Telecommunications in Uruguay are more developed than in most other Latin American countries, being the first country in the Americas to achieve complete digital telephony coverage in 1997. The telephone system is completely digitized and has very good coverage of all the country. The system is government-owned, and since the 1990s there have been controversial proposals to privatize it, or at least to sell some of its shares, which have been voted against by the people, the exception being the mobile phone market, shared by the state owned company Ancel, and two private companies, Movistar and Claro.
[edit] Culture
Main article: Culture of Uruguay

Uruguay has an impressive legacy of artistic and literary traditions, especially for its small size. The contribution of its alternating conquerors and diverse immigrants has resulted in native traditions that integrate this diversity. Uruguay has centuries old remains, fortresses of the colonial era. Its cities have a rich architectural heritage and an impressive number of writers, artists, and musicians. Uruguayan tango is the form of dance that originated in the neighborhoods of Montevideo, Uruguay towards the end of the 19th century. Tango, candombe, and murga are the three main styles of music.
[edit] Arts
A “livable sculpture,” Carlos Páez Vilaró’s Casapueblo is his home, hotel and museum.

A prominent exponent of Afro-Uruguayan art is abstract painter and sculptor Carlos Páez Vilaró. He drew from both Timbuktu and Mykonos to create his best-known work: Casapueblo. His home, hotel and atelier near Punta del Este, Casapueblo is a “livable sculpture,” and draws thousands of visitors from around the world.[25] The 19th-century painter Juan Manuel Blanes, whose works depict historical events, was the first Uruguayan artist to gain widespread recognition. The Post-Impressionist painter Pedro Figari achieved international renown for his pastel studies of subjects in Montevideo and the countryside. Blending elements of art and nature, the work of the landscape architect Leandro Silva Delgado has also earned international prominence.

Uruguay has a small but growing film industry, and movies such as Whisky by Juan Pablo Rebella and Pablo Stoll (2004), Marcelo Bertalmío’s Los días con Ana (2000: Days with Ana) and Ana Diez’s Paisito (2008), about the 1973 military coup have earned international honours.
[edit] Music
Main article: Music of Uruguay

The folk and popular music of Uruguay shares with Argentina not only its gaucho roots but also the tango. One of the most famous tangos, La Cumparsita (1917), was written by the Uruguayan composer Gerardo Matos Rodríguez. The candombe is a folk dance performed at Carnival mainly by Uruguayans of African ancestry. The guitar is the preferred musical instrument; and, in a popular traditional contest called the payada, two singers, each with a guitar, take turns improvising verses to the same tune. Numerous radio stations and musical events reflect the popularity of rock music and Caribbean genres known as música tropical (“tropical music”). Early classical music in Uruguay showed heavy Spanish and Italian influence, but since the 20th century a number of composers of classical music, including Eduardo Fabini, Vicente Ascone and Héctor Tosar, have made use of Latin American musical idioms.
[edit] Literature
Main article: Uruguayan literature
The Solís Theatre
José Enrique Rodó

José Enrique Rodó (1871–1917), a modernist, is considered Uruguay’s most significant literary figure. His book Ariel (1900) deals with the need to maintain spiritual values while pursuing material and technical progress. Besides stressing the importance of upholding spiritual over materialistic values, it also stresses resisting cultural dominance by Europe and the United States. The book continues to influence young writers. Outstanding among Latin American playwrights is Florencio Sánchez (1875–1910), who wrote plays about contemporary social problems that are still performed today

From about the same period and somewhat later came the romantic poetry of Juan Zorrilla de San Martín (1855–1931) – who wrote epic poems about Uruguayan history -, Juana de Ibarbourou (1895–1979), Delmira Agustini (1866–1914), Idea Vilariño (1920–2009) and the short stories of Horacio Quiroga. The psychological stories of Juan Carlos Onetti (such as No Man’s Land and The Shipyard) have earned widespread critical praise, as have the writings of Mario Benedetti. Uruguay’s best-known contemporary writer is Eduardo Galeano, author of Las venas abiertas de América Latina (1971; “Open Veins of Latin America”) and the trilogy Memoria del fuego (1982–87; “Memory of Fire”). Other modern Uruguayan writers include Mario Levrero, Sylvia Lago, Jorge Majfud and Jesús Moraes. Uruguayans of many classes and backgrounds enjoy reading historietas, comic books that often blend humour and fantasy with thinly veiled social criticism.
[edit] Religion
Main article: Religion in Uruguay

Uruguay is South America’s most secular country. It has no official religion and church and state are separate. Religious freedom is guaranteed. Sixty-six percent of Uruguayans are Roman Catholics. Most Uruguayans baptize their children and marry in churches. Less than half attend church on a regular basis. There is a small Jewish community in Montevideo (about 1% of the population) as well as several evangelical Protestant groups (about 11%). Macumba and Umbanda, religions of Afro-Brazilian origin, are currently[citation needed] growing in Uruguay.
[edit] Cuisine
Main article: Cuisine of Uruguay
Flan (firm egg custard) with dulce de leche

Uruguayans are known to eat a lot of meat, such as asado. The parrillada (beef platter), chivito (a substantial steak sandwich), and pasta are the national dishes. The latter is due to Uruguay’s many Italian immigrants in the late 1800s and early 1900s. Other Uruguayan dishes include morcilla dulce, a type of blood sausage cooked with ground orange fruit, orange peel and walnuts, and milanesa, a breaded veal cutlet similar to the Austrian Wiener Schnitzel. Snacks include olímpicos (club sandwiches), húngaras (spicy sausage in a hot dog roll), and masas surtidas (bite-sized pastries). Typical drinks include mate, tea, clericó (a mixture of white wine and fruit juice), medio y medio (part sparkling wine and part white wine), and red wine.

The cuisine of Uruguay is traditionally based on its European roots, like Mediterranean foods from Italy, Spain and France, but also Germany. Many foods from those countries such as pasta, sausages, and desserts are common in the nation’s diet. A sweet paste, Dulce de Leche is the national obsession, used to fill cookies, cakes, pancakes, milhojas, and alfajores. The alfajores are shortbread cookies sandwiched together with Dulce de Leche or a fruit paste. Dulce de Leche is used also in flan con Dulce de Leche. On rainy days, the traditional snack is “tortas fritas,” a food similar to Indian fry bread, fried in lard.

The national drink is the Grappamiel. Grappamiel is an alcoholic drink which is very popular in rural areas. It is distilled from grape and honey. It is often consumed in the cold mornings of autumn and winter to warm up the body.

A traditional drink is an infusion called mate. The dried leaves and twigs of the yerba mate plant (Ilex paraguariensis) are placed in a small cup made from a gourd. Hot water is then poured into the gourd at near-boiling point so as to not burn the herb and spoil the flavour. The drink is sipped through a metal or cane straw, known as a Bombilla.
Milanesa
Tortellini

* Asado: both the tradition of grilling beef over embers (which translates to barbecue in American English), and the dish, “tira de asado”.
* Chivito: a baroque sandwich containing steak, ham, cheese, tomato, lettuce, fried egg, red pepper, olives and mayonnaise.
* Chorizo al pan: a very popular Uruguayan fast food. A grilled “chorizo” and a crusty bread such as a baguette, with tomato, lettuce and mayonnaise.
* Empanada : a small pie or turnover, most commonly filled with meat or ham and cheese.
* Empanada Gallega: a fish pie, with sauce, onions and green peppers. Brought by the immigrants from Galicia.
* Fainá: a mix of chick pea flour, salt, water and olive oil, originally called “farinata” cooked like a pizza on a flat tray. Brought by immigrants from Liguria (Italy).
* Gnocchi (known as “ñoquis”) is traditionally eaten on the 29th day of each month. This was the day before payday, when people were at their poorest. Gnocchi made a cheap meal prepared from only mashed potatoes and flour and provided a hearty meal. On these occasions, some people leave a coin or a banknote under the plate to attract prosperity.
* Húngara: very similar to the Frankfurter, but very spicy.
* Milanesa: a thin, breaded steak. There is a great variety, such as: Milanesa Napolitana (with ham, mozzarella cheese and tomato sauce), Milanesa Rellena and Suprema Maryland (made with chicken meat).
* Lehmeyun: an Armenian dish, brought by the Armenian immigrants.
* Pancho: the typically Uruguayan hot dog: a bun called “pan de Viena” filled with a “Frankfurter” with mustard, ketchup, mayonnaise or “salsa golf” on top.
* Pascualina: a spinach pie, not unlike the spinach pies brought by immigrants from Liguria (Italy). . The name makes a reference to Pascua, ‘Easter’.
* Pastel de carne: in English: meat pie. Chopped meat, mashed potatoes, green peppers, olives, eggs.
* Russian salad: potatoes, carrots, peas and mayonnaise.

Due to its strong Italian tradition, all the famous Italian pasta dishes are found in Uruguay: ravioli, spaghetti, lasagna, tortellini, fettuccine, cannelloni, fusilli, agnolotti, tagliatelle, capellini, vermicelli, penne rigate, fagioloni, cellentani, rotini, bucatini, farfalle and the traditional gnocchi. Although the pasta can be served with a lot of sauces, there is one special sauce that was created by Uruguayans. The Caruso Sauce is a pasta sauce made from double cream, meat extract, onions, ham and mushrooms. It is very popular with sorrentinos and agnolotti. There is also a huge variety of pizza, as well as calzone, fugazzetas, figazzas, fainás, and cheese fainá.

* Alfajores: shortbread cookies, sandwiched together with Dulce de Leche or a fruit paste.
* Bizcochos: buttery flaky pastry with many variants, the croissants being one of the most popular.
* Budín inglés: in English: “English pudding”. A pudding with fruits and nuts, very popular in Christmas and New Year’s Eve.
* Chajá: a dessert with meringue, sponge cake, “Chajá” cream and peaches. It is created by a well know firm in the city of Paysandú.[26]
* Dulce de leche: a sweet treat made of milk and sugar. Is used in many Uruguayan desserts.
* Dulce de membrillo: a sweet quince paste.
* Flan: is a kind of rich custard dessert with a layer of soft caramel on top. It can be served with Dulce de Leche too (Flan con dulce de leche).
* Garrapiñada: a very popular treat, made with peanuts, cocoa, vanilla and sugar. It is sold in little bags in the downtown streets.
* Martín Fierro: a slice of cheese and a slice of quince paste (dulce de membrillo).
* Pastafrola: an pie made of quince paste (dulce de membrillo).
* Ricardito: Also as popular, this is a cream filled treat, covered with chocolate on a waffle base. It has different variants and it’s sold in most kiosks in individual boxes.
* Strudel: the famous apple pastry from Germany.

[edit] Sport
Centenario Stadium

The main sport in Uruguay is football (soccer). In 1924, Uruguay sent its national team to the Olympics in Paris, the first South American nation to compete in Europe. They won gold at the competition, as well as at the next Olympics in Amsterdam in 1928. In addition, the Uruguay national football team is one of only five nations to win the FIFA World Cup on two or more occasions. In 1930, Uruguay hosted the first ever World Cup and went on to win the competition, defeating Argentina 4–2 in the final. Uruguay won the 1950 FIFA World Cup as well, famously defeating the favored hosts, Brazil, 2–1 in the last game of the final series. Uruguay performed very credibly in the 2010 FIFA World Cup, having reached the semi-final after 40 years. A narrow 3-2 semi-final defeat to the Netherlands was followed by a further 3-2 defeat to Germany in the third place play-off. Diego Forlán was named 2010 player of the tournament. Uruguay is by far the smallest country, population wise, to win a World Cup. Out of the World Cup winners, the nation with the second smallest population is Argentina (winners of the 1978 and 1986 editions), which has over 40 million people according to the latest estimate; the Uruguay’s current population slightly over 3.4 million. In fact, only six nations with population smaller than Uruguay have ever participated in any World Cup.

Uruguay is also the smallest member nation of CONMEBOL, South American Football Association. Nevertheless, the Uruguayan national team has won the Copa América 14 times, a record it shares with Argentina.

The most popular football teams in Uruguay are Club Atlético Peñarol (Three times World champions, five times Copa Libertadores de América champions, 41 times Uruguayan League champions) and Club Nacional de Football (Three times World champions, three times Copa Libertadores de América champions and 42 times Uruguayan League champions). Those two, are followed by, Defensor Sporting Club, Danubio, historic teams as Montevideo Wanderers, and other popular teams like Cerro and Rampla Juniors. Uruguay has had many well known players such as Obdulio Varela, Juan Schiaffino, Enzo Francescoli, Gustavo Poyet, Álvaro Recoba, Diego Lugano and Diego Forlán (2005 and 2009 European Golden Shoe, 2010 FIFA World cup adidas Golden Ball winner) among many others.
[edit] Education

Uruguay was the first country to have reached, in 2009, full coverage of their primary students (and their teachers) population by the OLPC’s (One Laptop Per Child) XO through the Plan Ceibal. Due to their telecommunication infrastructure, students from primary schools from all over the country are able to access the Internet and its corresponding huge resources base. The Plan Ceibal included training of primary teachers to use the XO system, to maximize results. This represented a total of 350,000 primary students and their 16,000 teachers.[27]
[edit] Estancia tourism
A heartland of historic estancias : Estancia San Eugenio, Casupá, southern department of Flórida

Estancia tourism is based upon traditional, folkloristic and/or historical elements of Uruguay and the remaining resources of the historic ranches (estancias) from Uruguay’s “golden era”.
[edit] International rankings
Main article: International rankings of Uruguay

Political and economic rankings
GDP per capita – 60th highest, at I$11,969
Human Development Index – 46th highest, at 0.852
Income Equality, 0.449 (Gini Index)
Literacy Rate – 51st, at 97.7%
Unemployment rate – 112th, at 8.70%

Health rankings
Fertility rate- 140th most fertile, at 1.85 per woman

Birth rate – 157th most births, at 13.91 per 1000 people

Infant mortality – 128th most deaths, at 1 per 1000 live births

Death rate – 84th highest death rate, at 9.16 per 1000 people
Life Expectancy – 47th highest, at 76.4 years

Suicide Rate – 24th highest suicide rate, at 15.1 for males and 6.4 for females per 100,000 people

HIV/AIDS rate – 108th most cases, at 0.30%

Other rankings
CO2 emissions – 125th highest emissions, at 1.65 tonnes per capita
Electricity Consumption – 88th highest consumption of electricity, at 7,762,000,000 kWh
Broadband Internet access – no data
Global Peace Index – 25th highest peace rate in 2009

Comparative ranking by index

Index (Year) Author / Editor / Source Year of
publication Countries
sampled World
Ranking (1) Ranking
L.A.(2)
Global Peace (2009) The Economist[28]
2008
140 21º
2º
Corruption Perception (2008)(6) Transparency International[29]
2008
180 23º
1º
Democracy (2006) The Economist[30]
2007
167 23º
2º
Prosperity Index (2008) Legatum Institute[31]
2008
104 36º
3º
Press Freedom (2007) Reporters Without Borders[32]
2007
169 37º
2º
Economic Freedom (2008) The Wall Street Journal[33]
2008
157 38º
3º
Human Development (2005) United Nations (UNDP)[34]
2007–08
177 46º
3º
Quality-of-life (2005) The Economist[35]
2007
111 46º
6º
Travel and Tourism Competitiveness (2008) World Economic Forum[36]
2008
130 63º
7º
Global Competitiveness (2009–2010) World Economic Forum[37]
2009–10
131 65º
6º
Income inequality (1989–2007)(5) United Nations (UNDP)[38]
2007–2008
126 88º
2º

(1) Worldwide ranking among countries evaluated.
(2) Ranking among the 20 Latin American countries (Puerto Rico is not included).
(3) Ranking among 108 developing countries with available data only.
(4) Ranking among 71 developing countries with available data only. Countries in the sample surveyed between 1990 and 2005. Refers to population below income poverty line as defined by the World Bank’s $2 per day indicator
(5) Because the Gini coefficient used for the ranking corresponds to different years depending of the country, and the underlying household surveys differ in method and in the type of data collected, the distribution data are not strictly comparable across countries. The ranking therefore is only a proxy for reference purposes, and though the source is the same, the sample is smaller than for the HDI
(6) The 2008 CPI for Uruguay is equal to that of Chile, therefore both countries are tied in first place for Latin America.

[edit] References

1. ^ a b c d e Central Intelligence Agency. “Uruguay”. The World Factbook. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/uy.html. Retrieved January 5, 2010.
2. ^ a b c d “Uruguay”. International Monetary Fund. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2010/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2007&ey=2010&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=298&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=56&pr.y=7. Retrieved 2010-04-21.
3. ^ “CIA – The World Factbook – Field Listing – Distribution of family income – Gini index”. Cia.gov. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2172.html. Retrieved 2008-09-26.
4. ^ “Uruguay”. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 2008. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/620116/Uruguay#tab=active~checked%2Citems~checked&title=Uruguay%20–%20Britannica%20Online%20Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2008-09-02. “Official name: Oriental Republic of Uruguay”
5. ^ “Extended National Household Survey, 2006: Ancestry” (in Spanish) (PDF). National Institute of Statistics. http://www.ine.gub.uy/enha2006/flash/Flash%20Ascendencia.pdf.
6. ^ Transparency.org.
7. ^ “> News > World – Uruguay set to legalize gay civil unions”. SignOnSanDiego.com. 2007-11-29. http://www.signonsandiego.com/news/world/20071129-1132-uruguay-gay-.html. Retrieved 2010-06-26.
8. ^ “Ministerio de Turismo y Deporte del Uruguay (Spanish, English and Portuguese)”. Turismo.gub.uy. http://www.turismo.gub.uy/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=216&Itemid=195&lang=en. Retrieved 2010-06-26.
9. ^ Scott Myers, Los Años Oscuros 1967-1987Editorial Latina 1997.
10. ^ “Uruguay in Numbers” (in Spanish) (PDF). National Institute of Statistics. http://www.ine.gub.uy/biblioteca/uruguayencifras2006/Territorio%20y%20medio%20ambiente.pdf.
11. ^ http://www.rau.edu.uy/uruguay/geografia/records.txt
12. ^ http://gosouthamerica.about.com/library/blUrurfactpage.htm About.com: Go South America, based on information from the CIA World Factbook.
13. ^ Diego Stewart, Building out: Uruguay exports architectural services to India and Latin America,” in Latin Trade, May 2005. Retrieved August 11, 2007.
14. ^ Michael Fox, Uruguay’s Frente Amplio: From Revolution to Dilution, June 19, 2007. Retrieved August 11, 2007.
15. ^ BBC (See leaders, President Tabare Vazquez ‘On taking office he announced a $100m emergency plan to help the poor’
16. ^ Uruguay Unemployment Falls Sharply To 6.4% In October – INE. NASDAQ.
17. ^ “Politics and International Relations Data Bank at the Social Science School at the Universidad de la República (Uruguay)”. Fcs.edu.uy. http://www.fcs.edu.uy/pri/en. Retrieved 2010-06-26.
18. ^ “Reporters Without Borders Worldwide Press Freedom Index 2008″. Rsf.org. 2010-03-26. http://www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=29031. Retrieved 2010-06-26.
19. ^ “The Economist Intelligence Unit’s Index of Democracy 2008″ (PDF). http://a330.g.akamai.net/7/330/25828/20081021185552/graphics.eiu.com/PDF/Democracy%20Index%202008.pdf. Retrieved 2010-06-26.
20. ^ “2006/cpi/surveys_indices/policy_research”. Transparency.org. http://www.transparency.org/policy_research/surveys_indices/cpi/2006. Retrieved 2008-09-26.
21. ^ Área de Historia de la Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes. “Constituciones Hispanoamericanas – Constituciones – Uruguay”. Cervantesvirtual.com. http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/portal/constituciones/pais.formato?pais=Uruguay&indice=datos. Retrieved 2010-06-26.
22. ^ “International Religious Freedom Report 2007″. State.gov. 2007-04-17. http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90270.htm. Retrieved 2010-06-26.
23. ^ “UMM | Latin American Area Studies – Countries”. Morris.umn.edu. 2009-08-27. http://www.morris.umn.edu/academic/laas/Uruguay.html. Retrieved 2010-06-26.
24. ^ Ethnologue report for Uruguay
25. ^ “Carlos Páez Vilaró”. http://www.carlospaezvilaro.com/casapueblo.swf. Retrieved 2010-06-26.
26. ^ “Postre Chaja”. Postre Chaja. http://www.postrechaja.com. Retrieved 2010-06-26.
27. ^ “Plan Ceibal – Wikipedia, la enciclopedia libre” (in (Spanish)). Es.wikipedia.org. http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plan_Ceibal. Retrieved 2010-06-26.
28. ^ The Economist Intelligence Unit et al. (Vision of Humanity website). “Global Peace Index Rankings”. http://www.visionofhumanity.org/gpi/results/rankings/. Retrieved 2008-05-28.
29. ^ Transparency International. “2008 Corruption Perception Index Ranking Table”. http://www.transparency.org/news_room/in_focus/2008/cpi2008/cpi_2008_table. Retrieved 2008-09-28.
30. ^ The Economist Intelligence Unit. “The World in 2007, Democracy Index 2006″ (PDF). http://www.economist.com/media/pdf/DEMOCRACY_INDEX_2007_v3.pdf. Retrieved 2008-03-13.
31. ^ “The 2008 Legatum Prosperity Index Table 2008″ (PDF). Legatum Institute. http://www.prosperity.com/downloads/2008LegatumPItable.pdf. Retrieved 2008-10-14.
32. ^ Reporters Without Borders. “Corea del Norte, Turkmenistán y Eritrea: el trío infernal de la libertad de prensa” (in Spanish). http://www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=19387. Retrieved 2008-03-13.
33. ^ The Heritage Foundation and The Wall Street Journal. “Index of Economic Freedom 2008″. http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/countries.cfm. Retrieved 2008-03-14.
34. ^ UNPD Human Development Report 2007/2008. “Table 1: Human development index” (PDF). http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/hdr_20072008_en_indicator_tables.pdf. Retrieved 2008-03-11.
35. ^ The Economist Intelligence Unit. “Pocket World in Figures 2008″ (PDF). http://www.economist.com/media/pdf/QUALITY_OF_LIFE.pdf. Retrieved 2008-03-13.
36. ^ World Economic Forum (2008). “The Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report 2008″ (PDF). http://www.weforum.org/pdf/CGR08/Rankings.pdf. Retrieved 2008-03-09.
37. ^ World Economic Forum. “The Global Competitiveness Report 2009-2010″. http://www.gcr.weforum.org/. Retrieved 2009-09-09.
38. ^ UNPD Human Development Report 2007/2008. “Inequality in income or expenditure”. http://hdrstats.undp.org/indicators/147.html. Retrieved 2008-03-14.

[edit] External links
Find more about Uruguay on Wikipedia’s sister projects:
Definitions from Wiktionary
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Quotations from Wikiquote
Source texts from Wikisource
Images and media from Commons
News stories from Wikinews
Learning resources from Wikiversity

* President of Uruguay
* Parliament of Uruguay
* Ministry of External Affairs
* Judicial Branch of Uruguay
* Central Bank of Uruguay
* National Institute of Statistics
* National White Pages
* Chief of State and Cabinet Members
* Uruguay entry at The World Factbook
* Uruguay Electoral Database
* Uruguay at UCB Libraries GovPubs
* Uruguay at the Open Directory Project
* Wikimedia Atlas of Uruguay
* Uruguay travel guide from Wikitravel

[edit] Related information
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International membersh

Bendera
Motto: Je Maintiendrai
(Perancis: “Saya akan mempertahankan”)
Lagu kebangsaan: Wilhelmus
Ibu kota Amsterdam, Den Haag 1
Kota terbesar Amsterdam
Bahasa resmi Belanda, Frisia 2
Pemerintahan Monarki konstitusional
– Ratu Beatrix
– Perdana Menteri Jan Peter Balkenende
Kemerdekaan Dari Spanyol
– Proklamasi 26 Juli 1581
– Diakui 30 Januari 1648
Luas
– Total 41,526 km2 (131)
– Air (%) 18,41%
Penduduk
– Perkiraan 2007 16.570.613 (58)
– Sensus – -
– Kepadatan 395/km2 (15)
PDB (KKB) Perkiraan 2005
– Total US$477,4 miliar (23)
– Per kapita US$29.332 (15)
Mata uang Euro 3 (EUR)
Zona waktu (UTC+1)
– Musim panas (DST) (UTC+2)
Domain internet .nl
Kode telepon 31
1. Amsterdam adalah ibu kota konstitusi; Den Haag adalah ibu kota pemerintahan.

2. Bahasa Frisia adalah bahasa resmi Friesland.
3. Mata uang sebelum tahun 2002 adalah Gulden.

Belanda (bahasa Belanda: Koninkrijk der Nederlanden, secara harfiah berarti “Kerajaan Tanah-Tanah Rendah”) adalah sebuah negara di Eropa bagian barat laut. Di sebelah timur negara ini berbatasan dengan Jerman, di sebelah selatan dengan Belgia dan di sebelah barat dengan Laut Utara.

Kata Belanda dalam bahasa Indonesia diambil dari bahasa Portugis: Holanda -> olanda -> wolanda -> bolanda -> “Belanda”.

Belanda adalah salah satu negara yang pernah menguasai Indonesia dan baru mengakui kedaulatan Indonesia pada tanggal 27 Desember 1949, namun sekarang mengakui Indonesia merdeka pada 17 Agustus 1945.

Belanda merupakan salah satu negara yang terpadat di dunia dan kebanyakan tanahnya berada di bawah permukaan laut. Belanda juga terkenal dengan dijk (tanggul), kincir angin, terompa kayu, tulip dan sifat terbuka masyarakatnya. Sifat liberalnya menjadi sebutan masyarakat internasional. Belanda juga menjadi tempat kedudukan Mahkamah Internasional. Amsterdam merupakan ibu kota Belanda dan Den Haag pusat administrasi dan kediaman Ratu Belanda.
Daftar isi
[sembunyikan]

* 1 Sejarah
* 2 Daerah
* 3 Geografi
* 4 Ekonomi
* 5 Budaya
* 6 Olahraga
* 7 Lihat pula
* 8 Pranala luar

[sunting] Sejarah
!Artikel utama untuk bagian ini adalah: Sejarah Belanda

Di bawah pemerintahan Karel V (kaisar Romawi Suci dan raja Spanyol) kawasan ini (kini Belanda) merupakan salah satu dari 17 daerah Belanda, yaitu daerah yang meliputi sebagian besar kawasan yang dikenal hari ini sebagai Belgia, Luxemburg dan Utara Perancis. Selepas mendapat kemerdekaan dari Phillip II (anak lelaki Karel V) pada 1648, Belanda menjadi sebuah negara republik yang dinamakan Republik Tujuh Propinsi (Republiek der Zeven Provinciën). Republik ini menjadi penguasa ekonomi dan penjelajah laut yang mahir pada abad ke 17. Zaman ini dikenal sebagai Zaman Keemasan Belanda. Antara perusahaan-perusahaan internasional yang berawal di sini termasuk VOC.

Belanda pernah mempunyai beberapa koloni, salah satu yang paling ternama adalah Nederlands-Indië (yakni Indonesia) dan Suriname (nantinya dibarter dengan Inggris untuk Nieuw Amsterdam, atau sekarang dikenal dengan New York). Koloni ini pertama diadministrasi oleh Vereeinigde Oost-Indische Compagnie (VOC) dan West-Indische Compagnie (WIC atau resminya adalah Geoctroyeerde West-Indische Compagnie (GWIC)), keduanya adalah dua perusahaan milik pribadi. Tiga abad kemudian, perusahaan ini mendapat kesulitan finansial dan teritori dimana mereka beroperasi diambil alih oleh pemerintahan Belanda (pada tahun 1815 dan 1791). Pada saat inilah daerah tersebut menjadi koloni resmi pemerintahan Belanda

Belanda masuk ke dalam Kekaisaran Perancis oleh Napoleon Bonaparte, yang kemudian dibebaskan selepas kekalahannya. Selepas itu, Kerajaan Belanda didirikan pada 1815 dengan meliputi kawasan yang dikenali pada hari ini sebagai Belgia dan Luxemburg. Belgia mendapat kemerdekaan pada 1830, sedangkan Luxemburg berpisah selepas kematian Raja Willem III. Pada abad ke-19, Belanda sudah menjadi sebuah negara industri yang sebanding dengan negara negara tetangganya.

Pada abad ke-19. Belanda dapat dikategorikan ‘lamban’ dalam proses industrialisasi jika dibandingkan oleh negara tetangganya, terutama karena ketergantungannya terhadap infrastruktur air dan kekuatan angin. Belanda bersifat netral semasa Perang Dunia I dan Perang Dunia II. Belanda ditaklukkan oleh Nazi pada Mei 1940 pada saat perang dunia ke II, dan memaksanya untuk menjadi anggota sekutu. Belanda secara sekejap dalam masa itu untuk didominasi oleh Nazi. Lebih dari 100000 Yahudi-Belanda dibunuh semasa itu. Perkumpulan Bersenjata Abad ke-21 (The 21st Century Army Group) melaksanakan operasi militer yang bertujuan untuk membebaskan Belanda setelah pertentangan oleh warga Normandy, Inggris, Kanada, Polandia dan Amerika yang bertempur di Belanda mulai dari tahun 1944 sampai Belanda dibebaskan tahun 1945. Selepas perang, ekonomi Belanda menjadi semakin maju dengan Belanda menjadi anggota Benelux dan Komunitas Eropa. Belanda juga menjadi anggota NATO.

Belanda merupakan negara perintis Uni Eropa saat pendirian organisasi itu pada 1992.
[sunting] Daerah
!Artikel utama untuk bagian ini adalah: Daftar Provinsi Belanda
Peta Belanda, dengan titik merah menandakan ibu kota provinsi dan titik hitam menandakan kota terkenal lainnya.

Belanda dibagi kepada 12 kawasan administrasi yang dinamai provinsi (provincies).

* Groningen
* Friesland/Fryslân
* Drenthe
* Overijssel
* Flevoland
* Gelderland
* Utrecht
* Noord-Holland (Holland Utara)
* Zuid-Holland (Holland Selatan)
* Zeeland
* Noord-Brabant (Brabant Utara)
* Limburg

Setiap daerah terbagi atas kota-kota (gemeenten). Ada beberapa pulau di Karibia yang berada di bawah pemerintahan Belanda: Antillen Belanda dan Aruba.
[sunting] Geografi

Salah satu bentuk muka yang menarik di Belanda ialah permukaan tanahnya sangat rata. Hampir separuh daripada negara Belanda berada kurang 1 meter dpl. Walaupun demikian, provinsi Limburg, yang berada di bagian tengara negeri Belanda, sedikit berbukit.Permukaan tertinggi ialah Vaalserberg, yang berada di provinsi Limburg, mempunyai ketinggian 321 m. Permukaan yang terendah ialah Nieuwerkerk aan den IJssel, yang berada 6.76 dibawah permukaan laut.

Banyak tanah rendah dikawal oleh dijk dan dinding laut. Sebagian kawasan di Belanda, misalnya daerah Flevoland, mesti direklamasi. Kawasan yang direklamasi itu dipanggil polder.

Salah satu konstruksi yang terkenal ialah “Afsluitdijk” (Penutup Tanggul), yang memisahkan danau IJssel (IJsselmeer, dulunya disebut laut Zuider atau Zuiderzee) dengan laut Wadden (Waddenzee). Panjang dari tanggul ini 32 km dan lebarnya 90 m.

Negara ini dibagi kepada dua bagian utama oleh sungai Rhine (Rijn), Waal, dan Maas.

Arah angin yang utama di Belanda ialah barat daya, yang menyebabkan iklim kepulauan yang sederhana, dengan musim panas yang dingin dan musim sejuk yang sederhana.
[sunting] Ekonomi
!Artikel utama untuk bagian ini adalah: Ekonomi Belanda

Belanda mempunyai ekonomi yang maju dan terbuka yang mana pemerintahan telah mengurangi peranannya dalam mengawal ekonomi Belanda sejak 1980-an. Aktivitas ekonomi utama di Belanda adalah termasuk pemrosesan makanan, bahan kimia, pemrosesan minyak, dan pembuatan mesin listrik. Walaupun sektor pertaniannya hanya menyediakan peluang pekerjaan kurang dari 4% populasi, Belanda mampu menghasilkan kelebihan dalam industri makanan untuk diekspor. Belanda menduduki urutan ketiga dalam daftar pengekspor makanan, setelah Amerika Serikat dan Perancis.

Sebagai negara perintis Euro, Belanda menggantikan mata uang lamanya, gulden, pada 1 Januari 2002.
[sunting] Budaya
!Artikel utama untuk bagian ini adalah: Budaya Belanda

Belanda mempunyai banyak pelukis ternama. Ketika abad ke-17, Belanda melahirkan banyak pelukis andal seperti Rembrandt van Rijn, Johannes Vermeer, Jan Steen dan lain-lain. Pelukis ternama abad ke-19 dan 20 pula ialah Vincent van Gogh dan Piet Mondriaan selain M.C. Escher (ahli seni grafik) dan Han van Meegeren (pemalsu seni)*[1].

Belanda juga merupakan tanah air Desiderius Erasmus dan Baruch de Spinoza. René Descartes pula banyak menjalankan pekerjaannya di Belanda.

Belanda menjadi umum pada 14 SM dalam Reformasi Bahasa Hoovers van Otton(14 SM-29 M dalam budaya Tradisi Belanda kebanyakan Bahasa Belanda (92%)
[sunting] Olahraga

Secara umum, orang Belanda menyukai olahraga. Bila dilihat dari jumlah penduduknya yang relatif sedikit, negara Belanda banyak memenangkan piala di kejuaraan internasional. Contohnya, pada olimpiade musim panas di Sydney (2000), Belanda berada di tempat ke delapan dalam memenangkan piala emas. Sepak bola adalah cabang olahraga yang paling populer. Selain itu, berenang, sepeda balap, tenis, dan bola voli juga digemari.
[sunting] Lihat pula

* Hindia-Belanda
* Daftar negara-negara di dunia
* Daftar Kota Belanda
* Daftar Tokoh Belanda

[sunting] Pranala luar
Search Wikimedia Commons Wikimedia Commons memiliki galeri mengenai:
Belanda

Wikitravel Lihat panduan wisata Belanda di Wikitravel

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* Halaman ini terakhir diubah pada 22:51, 26 Juli 2010.
* Teks tersedia di bawah Lisensi Atribusi/Berbagi Serupa Creative Commons; ketentuan tambahan mungkin berlaku. L

Bendera Segel Kekaisaran
Lagu kebangsaan: Kimigayo (君が代?)
Segel Pemerintahan:
Segel Kantor Perdana Menteri dan Pemerintah Jepang
Paulownia (五七桐, Go-Shichi no Kiri?)
Ibu kota
(dan kota terbesar) Tokyo (de facto)
35°41′N 139°46′E / 35.683°N 139.767°E / 35.683; 139.767
Bahasa resmi Bahasa Jepang (de facto)[1]
Bahasa daerah
yang diakui Aynu itak, bahasa Ryukyu, dan dialek bahasa Jepang
Bahasa nasional
Aksara nasional

Bahasa Jepang
Kanji
Hiragana
Katakana
Kelompok etnik 98,5% Jepang, 0,5% Korea, 0,4% Cina, 0,6% lain-lain[2]
Pemerintahan Monarki konstitusional, sistem parlementer
– Kaisar Akihito
– Perdana Menteri Naoto Kan (DPJ)
Legislatif Parlemen Jepang
– Majelis Tinggi Majelis Tinggi Jepang (Sangi-in)
– Majelis Rendah Majelis Rendah Jepang (Shugi-in)
Pendirian negara
– Hari Pendirian Negara 11 Februari 660 SM[3]
– Konstitusi Meiji 29 November 1890
– Konstitusi Jepang 3 Mei 1947
– Perjanjian San Francisco
28 April 1952
Luas
– Total 377,944 km2 [4](ke-61)
– Air (%) 0,8
Penduduk
– Perkiraan 2009 127.530.000[5] (ke-10)
– Sensus 2004 127.333.002
– Kepadatan 337,4/km2 (ke-30)
PDB (KKB) Perkiraan 2008
– Total AS$4,356 triliun[6] (ke-3)
– Per kapita AS$34.115[6] (ke-24)
PDB (nominal) Perkiraan 2008
– Total AS$4.910 triliun[6] (ke-2)
– Per kapita AS$38.457[6] (ke-23)
Gini 38,1 (2002)[7]
IPM (2007) Green Arrow Up Darker.svg 0,960[8] (sangat tinggi) (ke-10)
Mata uang Simbol internasional ¥
Dibaca (Yen)
Simbol jepang 円
Dibaca (En) (JPY)
Zona waktu JST (UTC+9)
Format tanggal yyyy-mm-dd
yyyy年m月d日
zaman yy年m月d日
Lajur kemudi kiri
Domain internet .jp
Kode telepon 81

Jepang (bahasa Jepang: 日本 Nippon/Nihon, nama resmi: Nipponkoku/Nihonkoku Tentang suara ini dengarkan (bantuan·info)) adalah sebuah negara kepulauan di Asia Timur. Letaknya di ujung barat Samudra Pasifik, di sebelah timur Laut Jepang, dan bertetangga dengan Republik Rakyat Cina, Korea, dan Rusia. Pulau-pulau paling utara berada di Laut Okhotsk, dan wilayah paling selatan berupa kelompok pulau-pulau kecil di Laut Cina Timur, tepatnya di sebelah selatan Okinawa yang bertetangga dengan Taiwan.

Jepang terdiri dari 6.852 pulau[9] yang membuatnya merupakan suatu kepulauan. Pulau-pulau utama dari utara ke selatan adalah Hokkaido, Honshu (pulau terbesar), Shikoku, dan Kyushu. Sekitar 97% wilayah daratan Jepang berada di keempat pulau terbesarnya. Sebagian besar pulau di Jepang bergunung-gunung, dan sebagian di antaranya merupakan gunung berapi. Gunung tertinggi di Jepang adalah Gunung Fuji yang merupakan sebuah gunung berapi. Penduduk Jepang berjumlah 128 juta orang, dan berada di peringkat ke-10 negara berpenduduk terbanyak di dunia. Tokyo secara de facto adalah ibu kota Jepang, dan berkedudukan sebagai sebuah prefektur. Tokyo Raya adalah sebutan untuk Tokyo dan beberapa kota yang berada di prefektur sekelilingnya. Sebagai daerah metropolitan terluas di dunia, Tokyo Raya berpenduduk lebih dari 30 juta orang.

Menurut mitologi tradisional, Jepang didirikan oleh Kaisar Jimmu pada abad ke-7 SM. Kaisar Jimmu memulai mata rantai monarki Jepang yang tidak terputus hingga kini. Meskipun begitu, sepanjang sejarahnya, untuk kebanyakan masa kekuatan sebenarnya berada di tangan anggota-anggota istana, shogun, pihak militer, dan memasuki zaman modern, di tangan perdana menteri. Menurut Konstitusi Jepang tahun 1947, Jepang adalah negara monarki konstitusional di bawah pimpinan Kaisar Jepang dan Parlemen Jepang.

Sebagai negara maju di bidang ekonomi,[10] Jepang memiliki produk domestik bruto terbesar nomor dua setelah Amerika Serikat, dan masuk dalam urutan tiga besar dalam keseimbangan kemampuan berbelanja. Jepang adalah anggota Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa, G8, OECD, dan APEC. Jepang memiliki kekuatan militer yang memadai lengkap dengan sistem pertahanan moderen seperti AEGIS serta suat armada besar kapal perusak. Dalam perdagangan luar negeri, Jepang berada di peringkat ke-4 negara pengekspor terbesar dan peringkat ke-6 negara pengimpor terbesar di dunia. Sebagai negara maju, penduduk Jepang memiliki standar hidup yang tinggi (peringkat ke-8 dalam Indeks Pembangunan Manusia) dan angka harapan hidup tertinggi di dunia menurut perkiraan PBB.[11] Dalam bidang teknologi, Jepang adalah negara maju di bidang telekomunikasi, permesinan, dan robotika.
Daftar isi
[sembunyikan]

* 1 Nama Jepang
* 2 Sejarah
o 2.1 Prasejarah
o 2.2 Zaman Klasik
o 2.3 Zaman Pertengahan
o 2.4 Zaman Modern
* 3 Politik
o 3.1 Parlemen
o 3.2 Keluarga kekaisaran
* 4 Geografi
* 5 Hubungan luar negeri dan militer
* 6 Prefektur dan daerah
* 7 Ekonomi
* 8 Demografi
* 9 Pendidikan
* 10 Budaya
* 11 Peringkat internasional
* 12 Referensi
* 13 Bacaan selanjutnya
* 14 Lihat pula
* 15 Pranala luar

[sunting] Nama Jepang

Jepang disebut Nippon atau Nihon dalam bahasa Jepang. Kedua kata ini ditulis dengan huruf kanji yang sama, yaitu 日本 (secara harfiah: asal-muasal matahari). Sebutan Nippon sering digunakan dalam urusan resmi, termasuk nama negara dalam uang Jepang, prangko, dan pertandingan olahraga internasional. Sementara itu, sebutan Nihon digunakan dalam urusan tidak resmi seperti pembicaraan sehari-hari.

Kata Nippon dan Nihon berarti “negara/negeri matahari terbit”. Nama ini disebut dalam korespondensi Kekaisaran Jepang dengan Dinasti Sui di Cina, dan merujuk kepada letak Jepang yang berada di sebelah timur daratan Cina. Sebelum Jepang memiliki hubungan dengan Cina, negara ini dikenal sebagai Yamato (大和).[12] Di Cina pada zaman Tiga Negara, sebutan untuk Jepang adalah negara Wa (倭).

Dalam bahasa Cina dialek Shanghai yang termasuk salah satu dialek Wu, aksara Cina 日本 dibaca sebagai Zeppen ([zəʔpən]). Dalam dialek Wu, aksara 日 secara tidak resmi dibaca sebagai [niʔ] sementara secara resmi dibaca sebagai [zəʔ]. Dalam beberapa dialek Wu Selatan, 日本 dibaca sebagai [niʔpən] yang mirip dengan nama dalam bahasa Jepang.

Kata Jepang dalam bahasa Indonesia kemungkinan berasal dari bahasa Cina, tepatnya bahasa Cina dialek Wu tersebut. Bahasa Melayu kuno juga menyebut negara ini sebagai Jepang (namun ejaan bahasa Malaysia sekarang: Jepun). Kata Jepang dalam bahasa Melayu ini kemudian dibawa ke Dunia Barat oleh pedagang Portugis, yang mengenal sebutan ini ketika berada di Malaka pada abad ke-16. Mereka lah yang pertama kali memperkenalkan nama bahasa Melayu tersebut ke Eropa. Dokumen tertua dalam bahasa Inggris yang menyebut tentang Jepang adalah sepucuk surat dari tahun 1565, yang di dalamnya bertuliskan kata Giapan.[13]
[sunting] Sejarah
!Artikel utama untuk bagian ini adalah: Sejarah Jepang
[sunting] Prasejarah
Sebuah bejana dari periode Jomon Pertengahan (3000-2000 SM).

Penelitian arkeologi menunjukkan bahwa Jepang telah dihuni manusia purba setidaknya 600.000 tahun yang lalu, pada masa Paleolitik Bawah. Setelah beberapa zaman es yang terjadi pada masa jutaan tahun yang lalu, Jepang beberapa kali terhubung dengan daratan Asia melalui jembatan darat (dengan Sakhalin di utara, dan kemungkinan Kyushu di selatan), sehingga memungkinkan perpindahan manusia, hewan, dan tanaman ke kepulauan Jepang dari wilayah yang kini merupakan Republik Rakyat Cina dan Korea. Zaman Paleolitik Jepang menghasilkan peralatan bebatuan yang telah dipoles yang pertama di dunia, sekitar tahun 30.000 SM.

Dengan berakhirnya zaman es terakhir dan datangnya periode yang lebih hangat, kebudayaan Jomon muncul pada sekitar 11.000 SM, yang bercirikan gaya hidup pemburu-pengumpul semi-sedenter Mesolitik hingga Neolitik dan pembuatan kerajinan tembikar terawal di dunia. Diperkirakan bahwa penduduk Jomon merupakan nenek moyang suku Proto-Jepang dan suku Ainu masa kini.

Dimulainya periode Yayoi pada sekitar 300 SM menandai kehadiran teknologi-teknologi baru seperti bercocok tanam padi di sawah yang berpengairan dan teknik pembuatan perkakas dari besi dan perunggu yang dibawa serta migran-migran dari Cina atau Korea.

Dalam sejarah Cina, orang Jepang pertama kali disebut dalam naskah sejarah klasik, Buku Han yang ditulis tahun 111. Setelah periode Yayoi disebut periode Kofun pada sekitar tahun 250, yang bercirikan didirikannya negeri-negeri militer yang kuat. Menurut Catatan Sejarah Tiga Negara, negara paling berjaya di kepulauan Jepang waktu itu adalah Yamataikoku.
[sunting] Zaman Klasik

Bagian sejarah Jepang meninggalkan dokumen tertulis dimulai pada abad ke-5 dan abad ke-6 Masehi, saat sistem tulisan Cina, agama Buddha, dan kebudayaan Cina lainnya dibawa masuk ke Jepang dari Kerajaan Baekje di Semenanjung Korea.
Jepang dapat mengusir dua kali invasi Mongol ke Jepang (1274 dan 1281)

Perkembangan selanjutnya Buddhisme di Jepang dan seni ukir rupang sebagian besar dipengaruhi oleh Buddhisme Cina.[14] Walaupun awalnya kedatangan agama Buddha ditentang penguasa yang menganut Shinto, kalangan yang berkuasa akhirnya ikut memajukan agama Buddha di Jepang, dan menjadi agama yang populer di Jepang sejak zaman Asuka.[15]

Melalui perintah Reformasi Taika pada tahun 645, Jepang menyusun ulang sistem pemerintahannya dengan mencontoh dari Cina. Hal ini membuka jalan bagi filsafat Konfusianisme Cina untuk menjadi dominan di Jepang hingga abad ke-19.

Periode Nara pada abad ke-8 menandai sebuah negeri Jepang dengan kekuasaan yang tersentralisasi. Ibu kota dan istana kekaisaran berada di Heijo-kyo (kini Nara). Pada zaman Nara, Jepang secara terus menerus mengadopsi praktik administrasi pemerintahan dari Cina. Salah satu pencapaian terbesar sastra Jepang pada zaman Nara adalah selesainya buku sejarah Jepang yang disebut Kojiki (712) dan Nihon Shoki (720).[16]
Patung Buddha di Todaiji, Nara, yang dibuat pada tahun 752.

Pada tahun 784, Kaisar Kammu memindahkan ibu kota ke Nagaoka-kyō, dan berada di sana hanya selama 10 tahun. Setelah itu, ibu kota dipindahkan kembali ke Heian-kyō (kini Kyoto). Kepindahan ibu kota ke Heian-kyō mengawali periode Heian yang merupakan masa keemasan kebudayaan klasik asli Jepang, terutama di bidang seni, puisi dan sastra Jepang. Hikayat Genji karya Murasaki Shikibu dan lirik lagu kebangsaan Jepang Kimi ga Yo berasal dari periode Heian.[17]
[sunting] Zaman Pertengahan
Sekelompok orang-orang Portugis dari periode Nanban, abad ke-17.

Abad pertengahan di Jepang merupakan zaman feodalisme yang ditandai oleh perebutan kekuasaan antarkelompok penguasa yang terdiri dari ksatria yang disebut samurai. Pada tahun 1185, setelah menghancurkan klan Taira yang merupakan klan saingan klan Minamoto, Minamoto no Yoritomo diangkat sebagai shogun, dan menjadikannya pemimpin militer yang berbagi kekuasaan dengan Kaisar. Pemerintahan militer yang didirikan Minamoto no Yoritomo disebut Keshogunan Kamakura karena pusat pemerintahan berada di Kamakura (di sebelah selatan Yokohama masa kini). Setelah wafatnya Yoritomo, klan Hōjō membantu keshogunan sebagai shikken, yakni semacam adipati bagi para shogun. Keshogunan Kamakura berhasil menahan serangan Mongol dari wilayah Cina kekuasaan Mongol pada tahun 1274 dan 1281. Meskipun secara politik terbilang stabil, Keshogunan Kamakura akhirnya digulingkan oleh Kaisar Go-Daigo yang memulihkan kekuasaan di tangan kaisar. Kaisar Go-Daigo akhirnya digulingkan Ashikaga Takauji pada 1336.[18] Keshogunan Ashikaga gagal membendung kekuatan penguasa militer dan tuan tanah feodal (daimyo) dan pecah perang saudara pada tahun 1467 (Perang Ōnin) yang mengawali masa satu abad yang diwarnai peperangan antarfaksi yang disebut masa negeri-negeri saling berperang atau periode Sengoku.[19]

Pada abad ke-16, para pedagang dan misionaris Serikat Yesuit dari Portugal tiba untuk pertama kalinya di Jepang, dan mengawali pertukaran perniagaan dan kebudayaan yang aktif antara Jepang dan Dunia Barat (Perdagangan dengan Nanban). Orang Jepang menyebut orang asing dari Dunia Barat sebagai namban yang berarti orang barbar dari selatan.
Salah satu kapal segel merah Jepang (1634) yang dipakai berdagang di Asia.

Oda Nobunaga menaklukkan daimyo-daimyo pesaingnya dengan memakai teknologi Eropa dan senjata api. Nobunaga hampir berhasil menyatukan Jepang sebelum tewas terbunuh dalam Peristiwa Honnōji 1582. Toyotomi Hideyoshi menggantikan Nobunaga, dan mencatatkan dirinya sebagai pemersatu Jepang pada tahun 1590. Hideyoshi berusaha menguasai Korea, dan dua kali melakukan invasi ke Korea, namun gagal setelah kalah dalam pertempuran melawan pasukan Korea yang dibantu kekuatan Dinasti Ming. Setelah Hideyoshi wafat, pasukan Hideyoshi ditarik dari Semenanjung Korea pada tahun 1598.[20]

Sepeninggal Hideyoshi, putra Hideyoshi yang bernama Toyotomi Hideyori mewarisi kekuasaan sang ayah. Tokugawa Ieyasu memanfaatkan posisinya sebagai adipati bagi Hideyori untuk mengumpulkan dukungan politik dan militer dari daimyo-daimyo lain. Setelah mengalahkan klan-klan pendukung Hideyori dalam Pertempuran Sekigahara tahun 1600, Ieyasu diangkat sebagai shogun pada tahun 1603. Pemerintahan militer yang didirikan Ieyasu di Edo (kini Tokyo) disebut Keshogunan Tokugawa. Keshogunan Tokugawa curiga terhadap kegiatan misionaris Katolik, dan melarang segala hubungan dengan orang-orang Eropa. Hubungan perdagangan dibatasi hanya dengan pedagang Belanda di Pulau Dejima, Nagasaki. Pemerintah Tokugawa juga menjalankan berbagai kebijakan seperti undang-undang buke shohatto untuk mengendalikan daimyo di daerah. Pada tahun 1639, Keshogunan Tokugawa mulai menjalankan kebijakan sakoku (“negara tertutup”) yang berlangsung selama dua setengah abad yang disebut periode Edo. Walaupun menjalani periode isolasi, orang Jepang terus mempelajari ilmu-ilmu dari Dunia Barat. Di Jepang, ilmu dari buku-buku Barat disebut rangaku (ilmu belanda) karena berasal dari kontak orang Jepang dengan enklave orang Belanda di Dejima, Nagasaki. Pada periode Edo, orang Jepang juga memulai studi tentang Jepang, dan menamakan “studi nasional” tentang Jepang sebagai kokugaku.[21]
[sunting] Zaman Modern
Kekaisaran Jepang terdiri dari sebagian besar Asia Timur dan Tenggara pada tahun 1942.

Pada 31 Maret 1854, kedatangan Komodor Matthew Perry dan “Kapal Hitam” Angkatan Laut Amerika Serikat memaksa Jepang untuk membuka diri terhadap Dunia Barat melalui Persetujuan Kanagawa. Persetujuan-persetujuan selanjutnya dengan negara-negara Barat pada masa Bakumatsu membawa Jepang ke dalam krisis ekonomi dan politik. Kalangan samurai menganggap Keshogunan Tokugawa sudah melemah, dan mengadakan pemberontakan hingga pecah Perang Boshin tahun 1867-1868. Setelah Keshogunan Tokugawa ditumbangkan, kekuasaan dikembalikan ke tangan kaisar (Restorasi Meiji) dan sistem domain dihapus. Semasa Restorasi Meiji, Jepang mengadopsi sistem politik, hukum, dan militer dari Dunia Barat. Kabinet Jepang mengatur Dewan Penasihat Kaisar, menyusun Konstitusi Meiji, dan membentuk Parlemen Kekaisaran. Restorasi Meiji mengubah Kekaisaran Jepang menjadi negara industri modern dan sekaligus kekuatan militer dunia yang menimbulkan konflik militer ketika berusaha memperluas pengaruh teritorial di Asia. Setelah mengalahkan Cina dalam Perang Sino-Jepang dan Rusia dalam Perang Rusia-Jepang, Jepang menguasai Taiwan, separuh dari Sakhalin, dan Korea.[22]

Pada awal abad ke-20, Jepang mengalami “demokrasi Taisho” yang dibayang-bayangi bangkitnya ekspansionisme dan militerisme Jepang. Semasa Perang Dunia I, Jepang berada di pihak Sekutu yang menang, sehingga Jepang dapat memperluas pengaruh dan wilayah kekuasaan. Jepang terus menjalankan politik ekspansionis dengan menduduki Manchuria pada tahun 1931. Dua tahun kemudian, Jepang keluar dari Liga Bangsa-Bangsa setelah mendapat kecaman internasional atas pendudukan Manchuria. Pada tahun 1936, Jepang menandatangani Pakta Anti-Komintern dengan Jerman Nazi, dan bergabung bergabung bersama Jerman dan Italia membentuk Blok Poros pada tahun 1941[23]

Pada tahun 1937, invasi Jepang ke Manchuria memicu terjadinya Perang Sino-Jepang Kedua (1937-1945) yang membuat Jepang dikenakan embargo minyak oleh Amerika Serikat[24] Pada 7 Desember 1941, Jepang menyerang pangkalan Angkatan Laut Amerika Serikat di Pearl Harbor, dan menyatakan perang terhadap Amerika Serikat, Inggris, dan Belanda. Serangan Pearl Harbor menyeret AS ke dalam Perang Dunia II. Setelah kampanye militer yang panjang di Samudra Pasifik, Jepang kehilangan wilayah-wilayah yang dimilikinya pada awal perang. Amerika Serikat melakukan pengeboman strategis terhadap Tokyo, Osaka dan kota-kota besar lainnya. Setelah AS menjatuhkan bom atom di Hiroshima dan Nagasaki, Jepang akhirnya menyerah tanpa syarat kepada Sekutu pada 15 Agustus 1945 (Hari Kemenangan atas Jepang).[25]

Perang membawa penderitaan bagi rakyat Jepang dan rakyat di wilayah jajahan Jepang. Berjuta-juta orang tewas di negara-negara Asia yang diduduki Jepang di bawah slogan Kemakmuran Bersama Asia. Hampir semua industri dan infrastruktur di Jepang hancur akibat perang. Pihak Sekutu melakukan repatriasi besar-besaran etnik Jepang dari negara-negara Asia yang pernah diduduki Jepang.[26] Pengadilan Militer Internasional untuk Timur Jauh yang diselenggarakan pihak Sekutu mulai 3 Mei 1946 berakhir dengan dijatuhkannya hukuman bagi sejumlah pemimpin Jepang yang terbukti bersalah melakukan kejahatan perang.
Pencakar langit di Shinjuku, Tokyo

Pada tahun 1947, Jepang memberlakukan Konstitusi Jepang yang baru. Berdasarkan konstitusi baru, Jepang ditetapkan sebagai negara yang menganut paham pasifisme dan mengutamakan praktik demokrasi liberal. Pendudukan AS terhadap Jepang secara resmi berakhir pada tahun 1952 dengan ditandatanganinya Perjanjian San Francisco.[27] Walaupun demikian, pasukan AS tetap mempertahankan pangkalan-pangkalan penting di Jepang, khususnya di Okinawa. Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa secara secara resmi menerima Jepang sebagai anggota pada tahun 1956.

Seusai Perang Dunia II, Jepang mengalami pertumbuhan ekonomi yang pesat, dan menempatkan Jepang sebagai kekuatan ekonomi terbesar nomor dua di dunia, dengan rata-rata pertumbuhan produk domestik bruto sebesar 10% per tahun selama empat dekade. Pesatnya pertumbuhan ekonomi Jepang berakhir pada awal tahun 1990-an setelah jatuhnya ekonomi gelembung.[28]
[sunting] Politik
!Artikel utama untuk bagian ini adalah: Pemerintah Jepang
[sunting] Parlemen

Jepang menganut sistem negara monarki konstitusional yang sangat membatasi kekuasaan Kaisar Jepang. Sebagai kepala negara seremonial, kedudukan Kaisar Jepang diatur dalam konstitusi sebagai “simbol negara dan pemersatu rakyat”. Kekuasaan pemerintah berada di tangan Perdana Menteri Jepang dan anggota terpilih Parlemen Jepang, sementara kedaulatan sepenuhnya berada di tangan rakyat Jepang.[29] Kaisar Jepang bertindak sebagai kepala negara dalam urusan diplomatik.

Parlemen Jepang adalah parlemen dua kamar yang dibentuk mengikuti sistem Inggris. Parlemen Jepang terdiri dari Majelis Rendah dan Majelis Tinggi. Majelis Rendah Jepang terdiri dari 480 anggota dewan. Anggota majelis rendah dipilih secara langsung oleh rakyat setiap 4 tahun sekali atau setelah majelis rendah dibubarkan. Majelis Tinggi Jepang terdiri dari 242 anggota dewan yang memiliki masa jabatan 6 tahun, dan dipilih langsung oleh rakyat. Warganegara Jepang berusia 20 tahun ke atas memiliki hak untuk memilih.[10]

Kabinet Jepang beranggotakan Perdana Menteri dan para menteri. Perdana Menteri adalah salah seorang anggota parlemen dari partai mayoritas di Majelis Rendah. Partai Demokrat Liberal (LDP) berkuasa di Jepang sejak 1955, kecuali pada tahun 1993. Pada tahun itu terbentuk pemerintahan koalisi yang hanya berumur singkat dengan partai oposisi. Partai oposisi terbesar di Jepang adalah Partai Demokratik Jepang.[30]

Perdana Menteri Jepang adalah kepala pemerintahan. Perdana Menteri diangkat melalui pemilihan di antara anggota Parlemen.[31] Bila Majelis Rendah dan Majelis Tinggi masing-masing memiliki calon perdana menteri, maka calon dari Majelis Rendah yang diutamakan. Pada praktiknya, perdana menteri berasal dari partai mayoritas di parlemen. Menteri-menteri kabinet diangkat oleh Perdana Menteri. Kaisar Jepang mengangkat Perdana Menteri berdasarkan keputusan Parlemen Jepang[32], dan memberi persetujuan atas pengangkatan menteri-menteri kabinet.[33] Perdana Menteri memerlukan dukungan dan kepercayaan dari anggota Majelis Rendah untuk bertahan sebagai Perdana Menteri.
[sunting] Keluarga kekaisaran
Kaisar Akihito dan Permaisuri Michiko (tampak tengah), serta Pangeran Naruhito dan istri (di sebelah kanan).
!Artikel utama untuk bagian ini adalah: Keluarga kekaisaran Jepang

Kaisar Akihito adalah Kaisar Jepang yang sekarang. Kaisar Akihito naik takhta sebagai kaisar ke-125 setelah ayahandanya, Kaisar Hirohito mangkat pada 7 Januari 1989. Upacara kenaikan tahta Kaisar Akihito dilangsungkan pada 12 November 1990.[34] Putra Mahkota Naruhito, menikah dengan Putri Mahkota Masako yang berasal dari kalangan rakyat biasa, dan dikaruniai anak perempuan bernama Aiko (Putri Toshi). Adik dari Putra Mahkota Naruhito bernama Pangeran Akishino, menikah dengan Kiko Kawashima yang juga berasal dari rakyat biasa. Pangeran Akishino memiliki dua anak perempuan (Putri Mako dan Putri Kako), serta anak laki-laki bernama Pangeran Hisahito.
[sunting] Geografi
!Artikel utama untuk bagian ini adalah: Geografi Jepang
Gunung Fuji, bunga sakura, dan shinkansen. Ketiganya merupakan simbol Jepang

Jepang memiliki lebih dari 3.000 pulau yang terletak di pesisir Lautan Pasifik di timur benua Asia. Istilah Kepulauan Jepang merujuk kepada empat pulau besar, dari utara ke selatan, Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, dan Kyushu, serta Kepulauan Ryukyu yang berada di selatan Kyushu. Sekitar 70% hingga 80% dari wilayah Jepang terdiri dari pegunungan yang berhutan-hutan,[35][36] dan cocok untuk pertanian, industri, serta permukiman. Daerah yang curam berbahaya untuk dihuni karena risiko tanah longsor akibat gempa bumi, kondisi tanah yang lunak, dan hujan lebat. Oleh karena itu, permukiman penduduk terpusat di kawasan pesisir. Jepang termasuk salah satu negara berpenduduk terpadat di dunia.[37]

Gempa bumi berkekuatan rendah dan sesekali letusan gunung berapi sering dialami Jepang karena letaknya di atas Lingkaran Api Pasifik di pertemuan tiga lempeng tektonik. Gempa bumi yang merusak sering menyebabkan tsunami. Setiap abadnya, di Jepang terjadi beberapa kali tsunami.[38] Gempa bumi besar yang terjadi akhir-akhir ini di Jepang adalah Gempa bumi Chūetsu 2004 dan Gempa bumi besar Hanshin tahun 1995. Keadaan geografi menyebabkan Jepang memiliki banyak sumber mata air panas, dan sebagian besar di antaranya telah dibangun sebagai daerah tujuan wisata.[39]

Jepang berada di kawasan beriklim sedang dengan dengan pembagian empat musim yang jelas. Walaupun demikian, terdapat perbedaan iklim yang mencolok antara wilayah bagian utara dan wilayah bagian selatan.[40] Pada musim dingin, Jepang bagian utara seperti Hokkaido mengalami musim salju, namun sebaliknya wilayah Jepang bagian selatan beriklim subtropis. Iklim juga dipengaruhi tiupan angin musim yang bertiup dari benua Asia ke Lautan Pasifik pada musim dingin, dan sebaliknya pada musim panas.

Iklim Jepang terbagi atas enam zona iklim:

* Hokkaido: Kawasan paling utara beriklim sedang dengan musim dingin yang panjang dan membekukan, serta musim panas yang sejuk. Presipitasi tidak besar, namun salju banyak turun ketika musim dingin.
* Laut Jepang: Di pantai barat Pulau Honshu, tiupan angin dari barat laut membawa salju yang sangat lebat. Pada musim panas, kawasan ini lebih sejuk dibandingkan kawasan Pasifik. Walaupun demikian, suhu di kawasan ini kadangkala dapat menjadi sangat tinggi akibat fenomena angin fohn.
* Dataran Tinggi Tengah: Wilayah ini beriklim pedalaman dengan perbedaan suhu rata-rata musim panas-musim dingin yang sangat mencolok. Perbedaan suhu antara malam hari dan siang hari juga sangat mencolok.
* Laut Pedalaman Seto: Barisan pegunungan di wilayah Chugoku dan Shikoku menghalangi jalur tiupan angin musim, sehingga kawasan ini sepanjang tahun beriklim sedang.
* Samudra Pasifik: Kawasan pesisir bagian timur Jepang mengalami musim dingin yang sangat dingin, namun tidak banyak turun salju. Sebaliknya, musim panas menjadi begitu lembap akibat tiupan angin musim dari tenggara.
* Kepulauan Ryukyu: Kepulauan di barat daya Jepang termasuk Kepulauan Ryukyu beriklim subtropis, hangat sewaktu musim dingin dan suhu yang tinggi sepanjang musim panas. Presipitasi sangat tinggi, terutama selama musim hujan. Taifun sangat sering terjadi.

Suhu tertinggi yang pernah tercatat di Jepang adalah 40,9 °C (105,6 °F) pada 16 Agustus 2007.[41]

Musim hujan dimulai lebih awal di Okinawa, yakni sejak awal Mei. Garis depan musim hujan bergerak ke utara, namun berakhir di Jepang utara sebelum mencapai Hokkaido. Di sebagian besar wilayah Honshu, awal musim hujan dimulai pertengahan Juni dan berlangsung selama enam minggu. Taifun sering terjadi sepanjang September dan Oktober. Penyebabnya adalah tekanan tropis di garis khatulistiwa yang bergerak dari barat daya ke timur laut, dan sering membawa hujan yang sangat lebat.[40]
[sunting] Hubungan luar negeri dan militer
!Artikel utama untuk bagian ini adalah: Hubungan luar negeri Jepang, Pasukan Bela Diri Jepang, dan Kementerian Pertahanan (Jepang)
Kapal pengangkut helikopter kelas Hyuga milik Angkatan Laut Bela Diri Jepang

Jepang memiliki hubungan ekonomi dan militer yang erat dengan Amerika Serikat, dan menjalankan kebijakan luar negeri berdasarkan pakta keamanan Jepang-AS.[42] Sejak diterima menjadi anggota Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa pada tahun 1956, Jepang telah sepuluh kali menjadi anggota tidak tetap Dewan Keamanan PBB, termasuk tahun 2009-2010.[43] Jepang adalah salah satu negara G4 yang sedang mengusulkan perluasan anggota tetap Dewan Keamanan PBB.[44] Sebagai negara anggota G8, APEC, ASEAN Plus 3, dan peserta Konferensi Tingkat Tinggi Asia Timur, Jepang aktif dalam hubungan internasional dan mempererat persahabatan Jepang dengan negara-negara lain di seluruh dunia. Pakta pertahanan dengan Australia ditandatangani pada Maret 2007,[45] dan dengan India pada Oktober 2008.[46] Pada tahun 2007, Jepang adalah negara donor Bantuan Pembangunan Resmi (ODA) terbesar kelima di dunia.[47] Negara penerima bantuan ODA terbesar dari Jepang adalah Indonesia, dengan total bantuan lebih dari AS$29,5 miliar dari tahun 1960 hingga 2006.[48]

Jepang bersengketa dengan Rusia mengenai Kepulauan Kuril[49] dan dengan Korea Selatan mengenai Batu Liancourt[50]. Kepulauan Senkaku yang di bawah pemerintahan Jepang dipermasalahkan oleh Republik Rakyat Cina dan Taiwan.[51]

Pasal 9 Konstitusi Jepang berisi penolakan terhadap perang dan penggunaan kekuatan bersenjata untuk menyelesaikan persengketaan internasional. Pasal 9 Ayat 2 berisi pelarangan kepemilikan angkatan bersenjata dan penolakan atas hak keterlibatan dalam perang.[52][53] Jepang memiliki Pasukan Bela Diri yang berada di bawah Kementerian Pertahanan, dan terdiri dari Angkatan Darat Bela Diri Jepang (JGSDF), Angkatan Laut Bela Diri Jepang (JMSDF), dan Angkatan Udara Bela Diri Jepang (JASDF). Pada tahun 1991, kapal penyapu ranjau Angkatan Laut Bela Diri Jepang ikut membersihkan ranjau laut di Teluk Persia (lepas pantai Kuwait) bersama kapal penyapu ranjau dari delapan negara.[54][55] Atas permintaan Pemerintahan Transisi PBB di Kamboja (1992-1993), Jepang mengirimkan pengamat gencatan senjata, pemantau pemilihan umum, polisi sipil, dan dukungan logistik seperti perbaikan jalan dan jembatan.[56] Di Irak, pasukan nontempur Jepang membantu misi kemanusiaan dan kegiatan rekonstruksi infrastruktur mulai Desember 2003 hingga Februari 2009.[57][58][59]
[sunting] Prefektur dan daerah
!Artikel utama untuk bagian ini adalah: Prefektur Jepang
Peta prefektur di Jepang berikut kode ISO 3166-2:JP

Jepang terdiri dari 47 prefektur yang masing-masing diperintah oleh gubernur bersama dewan legislatif daerah. Dari utara ke selatan, prefektur-prefektur ini adalah:

1. Hokkaido
2. Aomori
3. Iwate
4. Miyagi
5. Akita
6. Yamagata
7. Fukushima
8. Ibaraki
9. Tochigi
10. Gunma
11. Saitama
12. Chiba
13. Tokyo
14. Kanagawa
15. Niigata
16. Toyama
17. Ishikawa
18. Fukui
19. Yamanashi
20. Nagano
21. Gifu
22. Shizuoka
23. Aichi
24. Mie
25. Shiga
26. Kyoto
27. Osaka
28. Hyogo
29. Nara
30. Wakayama
31. Tottori
32. Shimane
33. Okayama
34. Hiroshima
35. Yamaguchi
36. Tokushima
37. Kagawa
38. Ehime
39. Kochi
40. Fukuoka
41. Saga
42. Nagasaki
43. Kumamoto
44. Oita
45. Miyazaki
46. Kagoshima
47. Okinawa

Dalam pembagian wilayah menurut letak geografis, Jepang dibagi menjadi 10 wilayah, yakni: Hokkaido, Tohoku, Hokuriku, Kanto, Chubu, Kansai (Kinki), Chugoku, Shikoku, Kyushu, dan Kepulauan Ryukyu.
[sunting] Ekonomi
!Artikel utama untuk bagian ini adalah: Ekonomi Jepang
Bursa Saham Tokyo, bursa efek terbesar nomor dua di dunia.

Sejak periode Meiji (1868-1912), Jepang mulai menganut ekonomi pasar bebas dan mengadopsi kapitalisme model Inggris dan Amerika Serikat. Sistem pendidikan Barat diterapkan di Jepang, dan ribuan orang Jepang dikirim ke Amerika Serikat dan Eropa untuk belajar. Lebih dari 3.000 orang Eropa dan Amerika didatangkan sebagai tenaga pengajar di Jepang.[60] Pada awal periode Meiji, pemerintah membangun jalan kereta api, jalan raya, dan memulai reformasi kepemilikan tanah. Pemerintah membangun pabrik dan galangan kapal untuk dijual kepada swasta dengan harga murah. Sebagian dari perusahaan yang didirikan pada periode Meiji berkembang menjadi zaibatsu, dan beberapa di antaranya masih beroperasi hingga kini.[60]

Pertumbuhan ekonomi riil dari tahun 1960-an hingga 1980-an sering disebut “keajaiban ekonomi Jepang”, yakni rata-rata 10% pada tahun 1960-an, 5% pada tahun 1970-an, dan 4% pada tahun 1980-an.[60] Dekade 1980-an merupakan masa keemasan ekspor otomotif dan barang elektronik ke Eropa dan Amerika Serikat sehingga terjadi surplus neraca perdagangan yang mengakibatkan konflik perdagangan. Setelah ditandatanganinya Perjanjian Plaza 1985, dolar AS mengalami depresiasi terhadap yen. Pada Februari 1987, tingkat diskonto resmi diturunkan hingga 2,5% agar produk manufaktur Jepang bisa kembali kompetitif setelah terjadi kemerosotan volume ekspor akibat menguatnya yen. Akibatnya, terjadi surplus likuiditas dan penciptaan uang dalam jumlah besar. Spekulasi menyebabkan harga saham dan realestat terus meningkat, dan berakibat pada penggelembungan harga aset. Harga tanah terutama menjadi sangat tinggi akibat adanya “mitos tanah” bahwa harga tanah tidak akan jatuh.[28] Ekonomi gelembung Jepang jatuh pada awal tahun 1990-an akibat kebijakan uang ketat yang dikeluarkan Bank of Japan pada 1989, dan kenaikan tingkat diskonto resmi menjadi 6%.[28] Pada 1990, pemerintah mengeluarkan sistem baru pajak penguasaan tanah dan bank diminta untuk membatasi pendanaan aset properti. Indeks rata-rata Nikkei dan harga tanah jatuh pada Desember 1989 dan musim gugur 1990.[28] Pertumbuhan ekonomi mengalami stagnasi pada 1990-an, dengan angka rata-rata pertumbuhan ekonomi riil hanya 1,7% sebagai akibat penanaman modal yang tidak efisien dan penggelembungan harga aset pada 1980-an. Institusi keuangan menanggung kredit bermasalah karena telah mengeluarkan pinjaman uang dengan jaminan tanah atau saham. Usaha pemerintah mengembalikan pertumbuhan ekonomi hanya sedikit yang berhasil dan selanjutnya terhambat oleh kelesuan ekonomi global pada tahun 2000.[61]

Jepang adalah perekonomian terbesar nomor dua di dunia setelah Amerika Serikat,[62] dengan PDB nominal sekitar AS$4,5 triliun.[62], dan perekonomian terbesar ke-3 di dunia setelah AS dan Republik Rakyat Cina dalam keseimbangan kemampuan berbelanja.[63] Industri utama Jepang adalah sektor perbankan, asuransi, realestat, bisnis eceran, transportasi, telekomunikasi, dan konstruksi.[64] Jepang memiliki industri berteknologi tinggi di bidang otomotif, elektronik, mesin perkakas, baja dan logam non-besi, perkapalan, industri kimia, tekstil, dan pengolahan makanan.[61] Sebesar tiga perempat dari produk domestik bruto Jepang berasal dari sektor jasa.
Distrik Minato Mirai 21 di Yokohama. Ekonomi Jepang sangat mengandalkan sektor jasa.

Hingga tahun 2001, jumlah angkatan kerja Jepang mencapai 67 juta orang.[65] Tingkat pengangguran di Jepang sekitar 4%. Pada tahun 2007, Jepang menempati urutan ke-19 dalam produktivitas tenaga kerja.[66] Menurut indeks Big Mac, tenaga kerja di Jepang mendapat upah per jam terbesar di dunia. Toyota Motor, Mitsubishi UFJ Financial, Nintendo, NTT DoCoMo, Nippon Telegraph & Telephone, Canon, Matsushita Electric Industrial, Honda, Mitsubishi Corporation, dan Sumitomo Mitsui Financial adalah 10 besar perusahaan Jepang pada tahun 2008.[67] Sejumlah 326 perusahaan Jepang masuk ke dalam daftar Forbes Global 2000 atau 16,3% dari 2000 perusahaan publik terbesar di dunia (data tahun 2006).[68] Bursa Saham Tokyo memiliki total kapitalisasi pasar terbesar nomor dua di dunia. Indeks dari 225 saham perusahaan besar yang diperdagangkan di Bursa Saham Tokyo disebut Nikkei 225.[69]

Dalam Indeks Kemudahan Berbisnis, Jepang menempati peringkat ke-12, dan termasuk salah satu negara maju dengan birokrasi paling sederhana. Kapitalisme model Jepang memiliki sejumlah ciri khas. Keiretsu adalah grup usaha yang beranggotakan perusahaan yang saling memiliki kerja sama bisnis dan kepemilikan saham. Negosiasi upah (shuntō) berikut perbaikan kondisi kerja antara manajemen dan serikat buruh dilakukan setiap awal musim semi. Budaya bisnis Jepang mengenal konsep-konsep lokal, seperti Sistem Nenkō, nemawashi, salaryman, dan office lady. Perusahaan di Jepang mengenal kenaikan pangkat berdasarkan senioritas dan jaminan pekerjaan seumur hidup.[70][71] Kejatuhan ekonomi gelembung yang diikuti kebangkrutan besar-besaran dan pemutusan hubungan kerja menyebabkan jaminan pekerjaan seumur hidup mulai ditinggalkan.[72][73] Perusahaan Jepang dikenal dengan metode manajemen seperti The Toyota Way. Aktivisme pemegang saham sangat jarang.[74] Dalam Indeks Kebebasan Ekonomi, Jepang menempati urutan ke-5 negara paling laissez-faire di antara 41 negara Asia Pasifik.[75]
Mobil hibrida Toyota Prius. Produk otomotif dan elektronik adalah komoditas ekspor unggulan Jepang.

Total ekspor Jepang pada tahun 2005 adalah 4.210 dolar AS per kapita. Pasar ekspor terbesar Jepang tahun 2006 adalah Amerika Serikat 22,8%, Uni Eropa 14,5%, Cina 14,3%, Korea Selatan 7,8%, Taiwan 6,8%, dan Hong Kong 5,6%. Produk ekspor unggulan Jepang adalah alat transportasi, kendaraan bermotor, elektronik, mesin-mesin listrik, dan bahan kimia.[61] Negara sumber impor terbesar bagi Jepang pada tahun 2006 adalah Cina 20,5%, AS 12,0%, Uni Eropa 10,3%, Arab Saudi 6,4%, Uni Emirat Arab 5,5%, Australia 4,8%, Korea Selatan 4,7%, dan Indonesia 4,2%. Impor utama Jepang adalah mesin-mesin dan perkakas, minyak bumi, bahan makanan, tekstil, dan bahan mentah untuk industri.[61]

Jepang adalah negara pengimpor hasil laut terbesar di dunia (senilai AS$ 14 miliar).[76] Jepang berada di peringkat ke-6 setelah RRC, Peru, Amerika Serikat, Indonesia, dan Chili, dengan total tangkapan ikan yang terus menurun sejak 1996.[77][78]

Pertanian adalah sektor industri andalan hingga beberapa tahun seusai Perang Dunia II. Menurut sensus tahun 1950, sekitar 50% angkatan kerja berada di bidang pertanian. Sepanjang “masa keajaiban ekonomi Jepang”, angkatan kerja di bidang pertanian terus menyusut hingga sekitar 4,1% pada tahun 2008.[79] Pada Februari 2007 terdapat 1.813.000 keluarga petani komersial, namun di antaranya hanya kurang dari 21,2% atau 387.000 keluarga petani pengusaha.[80] Sebagian besar angkatan kerja pertanian sudah berusia lanjut, sementara angkatan kerja usia muda hanya sedikit yang bekerja di bidang pertanian.[81][82]
[sunting] Demografi
!Artikel utama untuk bagian ini adalah: demografi Jepang, bahasa Jepang, bangsa Jepang, masalah ras di Jepang, dan agama di Jepang
Pemandangan perempatan Shibuya pada malam hari. Perempatan Shibuya dikenal sangat ramai dengan penyeberang jalan.
Kuil Shinto Itsukushima Situs Warisan Dunia UNESCO.

Populasi Jepang diperkirakan sekitar 127,614 juta orang (perkiraan 1 Februari 2009).[83] Masyarakat Jepang homogen dalam etnis, budaya dan bahasa, dengan sedikit populasi pekerja asing. Di antara sedikit penduduk minoritas di Jepang terdapat orang Korea Zainichi,[84] Cina Zainichi, orang Filipina, orang Brazil-Jepang[85], dan orang Peru-Jepang.[86] Pada 2003, ada sekitar 136.000 orang Barat yang menjadi ekspatriat di Jepang.[87]

Kewarganegaraan Jepang diberikan kepada bayi yang dilahirkan dari ayah atau ibu berkewarganegaraan Jepang, ayah berkewarganegaraan Jepang yang wafat sebelum bayi lahir, atau bayi yang lahir di Jepang dengan ayah/ibu tidak diketahui/tidak memiliki kewarganegaraan.[88] Suku bangsa yang paling dominan adalah penduduk asli yang disebut suku Yamato dan kelompok minoritas utama yang terdiri dari penduduk asli suku Ainu[89] dan Ryukyu, ditambah kelompok minoritas secara sosial yang disebut burakumin.[90]

Pada tahun 2006, tingkat harapan hidup di Jepang adalah 81,25 tahun, dan merupakan salah satu tingkat harapan hidup tertinggi di dunia.[91] Namun populasi Jepang dengan cepat menua sebagai dampak dari ledakan kelahiran pascaperang diikuti dengan penurunan tingkat kelahiran. Pada tahun 2004, sekitar 19,5% dari populasi Jepang sudah berusia di atas 65 tahun.[92]

Perubahan dalam struktur demografi menyebabkan sejumlah masalah sosial, terutama kecenderungan menurunnya populasi angkatan kerja dan meningkatnya biaya jaminan sosial seperti uang pensiun. Masalah lain termasuk meningkatkan generasi muda yang memilih untuk tidak menikah atau memiliki keluarga ketika dewasa.[93] Populasi Jepang dikhawatirkan akan merosot menjadi 100 juta pada tahun 2050 dan makin menurun hingga 64 juta pada tahun 2100.[92] Pakar demografi dan pejabat pemerintah kini dalam perdebatan hangat mengenai cara menangani masalah penurunan jumlah penduduk.[93] Imigrasi dan insentif uang untuk kelahiran bayi sering disarankan sebagai pemecahan masalah penduduk Jepang yang semakin menua.[94][95]

Perkiraan tertinggi jumlah penganut agama Buddha sekaligus Shinto adalah 84-96% yang menunjukkan besarnya jumlah penganut sinkretisme dari kedua agama tersebut.[10][96] Walaupun demikian, perkiraan tersebut hanya didasarkan pada jumlah orang yang diperkirakan ada hubungan dengan kuil, dan bukan jumlah penduduk yang sungguh-sungguh menganut kedua agama tersebut.[97] Professor Robert Kisala (dari Universitas Nanzan) memperkirakan hanya 30% dari penduduk Jepang yang mengaku menganut suatu agama.[97]

Taoisme dan Konfusianisme dari Cina juga mempengaruhi kepercayaan dan tradisi Jepang. Agama di Jepang cenderung bersifat sinkretisme dengan hasil berupa berbagai macam tradisi, seperti orang tua membawa anak-anak ke upacara Shinto, pelajar berdoa di kuil Shinto meminta lulus ujian, pernikahan ala Barat di kapel atau gereja Kristen, sementara pemakaman diurus oleh kuil Buddha. Penduduk beragama Kristen hanya minoritas sejumlah (2.595.397 juta atau 2,04%).[98] Kebanyakan orang Jepang mengambil sikap tidak peduli terhadap agama dan melihat agama sebagai budaya dan tradisi. Bila ditanya mengenai agama, mereka akan mengatakan bahwa mereka beragama Buddha hanya karena nenek moyang mereka menganut salah satu sekte agama Buddha. Selain itu, di Jepang sejak pertengahan abad ke-19 bermunculan berbagai sekte agama baru (Shinshūkyō) seperti Tenrikyo dan Aum Shinrikyo (atau Aleph).

Lebih dari 99% penduduk Jepang berbicara bahasa Jepang sebagai bahasa ibu.[83] Bahasa Jepang adalah bahasa aglutinatif dengan tuturan hormat (kata honorifik) yang mencerminkan hirarki dalam masyarakat Jepang. Pemilihan kata kerja dan kosa kata menunjukkan status pembicara dan pendengar. Menurut kamus bahasa Jepang Shinsen-kokugojiten, kosa kata dari Cina berjumlah sekitar 49,1% dari kosa kata keseluruhan, kata-kata asli Jepang hanya 33,8% dan kata serapan sekitar 8,8%.[99] Bahasa Jepang ditulis memakai aksara kanji, hiragana, dan katakana, ditambah huruf Latin dan penulisan angka Arab. Bahasa Ryukyu yang juga termasuk salah satu keluarga bahasa Japonik dipakai orang Okinawa, tapi hanya sedikit dipelajari anak-anak.[100] Bahasa Ainu adalah bahasa mati dengan hanya sedikit penutur asli yang sudah berusia lanjut di Hokkaido.[101] Murid sekolah negeri dan swasta di Jepang hanya diharuskan belajar bahasa Jepang dan bahasa Inggris.[102]
l • b • s
Kota-kota besar di Jepang
Kota Prefektur Populasi Kota Prefektur Populasi
1 Tokyo Tokyo 8.483.050 Jepang
Jepang 7 Kyoto Kyoto 1.474.764
2 Yokohama Kanagawa 3.579.133 8 Fukuoka Fukuoka 1.400.621
3 Osaka Osaka 2.628.776 9 Kawasaki Kanagawa 1.327.009
4 Nagoya Aichi 2.215.031 10 Saitama Saitama 1.176.269
5 Sapporo Hokkaido 1.880.875 11 Hiroshima Hiroshima 1.159.391
6 Kobe Hyogo 1.525.389 12 Sendai Miyagi 1.028.214
Sumber: Sensus 2005
[sunting] Pendidikan
!Artikel utama untuk bagian ini adalah: Pendidikan di Jepang
Auditorium Yasuda di Universitas Tokyo

Pendidikan dasar dan menengah, serta pendidikan tinggi diperkenalkan di Jepang pada 1872 sebagai hasil Restorasi Meiji.[103] Sejak 1947, program wajib belajar di Jepang mewajibkan setiap warga negara untuk untuk bersekolah selama 9 tahun di Sekolah Dasar dan Sekolah Menengah Pertama (dari usia 6 hingga 15 tahun). Di kalangan penduduk berusia 15 tahun ke atas, tingkat melek huruf sebesar 99%, laki-laki: 99%; perempuan: 99% (2002).[104]

Hampir semua murid meneruskan ke Sekolah Menengah Atas, dan menurut MEXT sekitar 75,9% lulusan sekolah menengah atas pada tahun 2005 melanjutkan ke universitas, akademi, sekolah keterampilan, atau lembaga pendidikan tinggi lainnya.[105] Pendidikan di Jepang sangat kompetitif,[106] khususnya dalam ujian masuk perguruan tinggi. Dua peringkat teratas universitas di Jepang ditempati oleh Universitas Tokyo dan Universitas Keio.[107] Dalam peringkat yang disusun Program Penilaian Pelajar Internasional dari OECD, pengetahuan dan keterampilan anak Jepang berusia 15 tahun berada di peringkat nomor enam terbaik di dunia.[108]
[sunting] Budaya
!Artikel utama untuk bagian ini adalah: Budaya Jepang

Budaya Jepang mencakup interaksi antara budaya asli Jomon yang kokoh dengan pengaruh dari luar negeri yang menyusul. Mula-mula Cina dan Korea banyak membawa pengaruh, bermula dengan perkembangan budaya Yayoi sekitar 300 SM. Gabungan tradisi budaya Yunani dan India, mempengaruhi seni dan keagamaan Jepang sejak abad ke-6 Masehi, dilengkapi dengan pengenalan agama Buddha sekte Mahayana. Sejak abad ke-16, pengaruh Eropa menonjol, disusul dengan pengaruh Amerika Serikat yang mendominasi Jepang setelah berakhirnya Perang Dunia II. Jepang turut mengembangkan budaya yang original dan unik, dalam seni (ikebana, origami, ukiyo-e), kerajinan tangan (pahatan, tembikar, persembahan (boneka bunraku, tarian tradisional, kabuki, noh, rakugo), dan tradisi (permainan Jepang, onsen, sento, upacara minum teh, taman Jepang), serta makanan Jepang.

Kini, Jepang merupakan salah sebuah pengekspor budaya pop yang terbesar. Anime, manga, mode, film, kesusastraan, permainan video, dan musik Jepang menerima sambutan hangat di seluruh dunia, terutama di negara-negara Asia yang lain. Pemuda Jepang gemar menciptakan trend baru dan kegemaran mengikut gaya mereka mempengaruhi mode dan trend seluruh dunia. Pasar muda-mudi yang amat baik merupakan ujian untuk produk-produk elektronik konsumen yang baru, di mana gaya dan fungsinya ditentukan oleh pengguna Jepang, sebelum dipertimbangkan untuk diedarkan ke seluruh dunia.
Chakinzushi, sushi yang dibungkus telur dadar tipis.

Baru-baru ini Jepang mula mengekspor satu lagi komoditas budaya yang bernilai: olahragawan. Popularitas pemain bisbol Jepang di Amerika Serikat meningkatkan kesadaran warga negara Barat tersebut terhadap segalanya mengenai Jepang.

Orang Jepang biasanya gemar memakan makanan tradisi mereka. Sebagian besar acara TV pada waktu petang dikhususkan pada penemuan dan penghasilan makanan tradisional yang bermutu. Makanan Jepang mencetak nama di seluruh dunia dengan sushi, yang biasanya dibuat dari pelbagai jenis ikan mentah yang digabungkan dengan nasi dan wasabi. Sushi memiliki banyak penggemar di seluruh dunia. Makanan Jepang bertumpu pada peralihan musim, dengan menghidangkan mi dingin dan sashimi pada musim panas, sedangkan ramen panas dan shabu-shabu pada musim dingin.
[sunting] Peringkat internasional

* Indeks Pembangunan Manusia – peringkat ke-8
* Reporters Without Borders/Kebebasan Pers – peringkat ke-37
* PDB per kapita – peringkat ke-22

[sunting] Referensi

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58. ^ 航空自衛隊イラク復興支援派遣撤収業務隊による撤収業務の終結に関する命令の発出について. Kementerian Pertahanan. Diakses pada 10 Maret 2009
59. ^ 2009年2月16日付防衛省人事発令. Kementerian Pertahanan. Diakses pada 10 Maret 2009
60. ^ a b c (1994). Japan: Patterns of Development. country-data.com. Diakses pada 28 Desember 2006
61. ^ a b c d World Factbook; Japan—Economy. CIA. Diakses pada 28 Desember 2006
62. ^ a b World Economic Outlook Database; country comparisons. IMF. Diakses pada 14 Maret 2007
63. ^ NationMaster; Economy Statistics. NationMaster. Diakses pada 26 Maret 2007
64. ^ er 6 Manufacturing and Construction, Statistical Handbook of Japan, Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications
65. ^ http://www.prcdc.org/summaries/japan/japan.html
66. ^ Groningen Growth and Development Centre (GGDC)
67. ^ Japan 500 2008, Financial Times Diakses pada 8 Maret 2009]
68. ^ [http://www.forbes.com/lists/2006/18/06f2000_The-Forbes-2000_Rank.html The Forbes 2000
69. ^ Market data. New York Stock Exchange (2006-01-31). Diakses pada 2007-08-11.
70. ^ Japan's Economy: Free at last. The Economist. Diakses pada 29 Maret 2007
71. ^ The State and Change in the "Lifetime Employment" in Japan: From the End of War Through 1995. Research Institute of Economy, Trade and Industry (RIETI). Diakses pada 29 Maret 2007
72. ^ Life-time Employment (終身雇用). exBuzzWords. Diakses pada 28 Maret 2007
73. ^ The Economist: Going hybrid
74. ^ Activist shareholders swarm in Japan, The Economist
75. ^ Japan, Index of Economic Freedom
76. ^ The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2006. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department FAO. Diakses pada 2 Maret 2009
77. ^ (2006). Yearbooks of Fishery Statistics: World fisheries production, by capture and aquaculture, by country (2006). Fisheries and Aquaculture Department FAO. Diakses pada 8 Maret 2009
78. ^ The World Almanac and book of facts 2008. World Almanac Books. 2008. hlm. 94. ISBN 1-60057-072-0.
79. ^ Employed person by occupation and sex (労働力調査 長期時系列データ 職業別就業者数). Statistics Bureau, Director General for Policy Planning (Statistical Standards) 総務省統計局. Diakses pada 9 Maret 2009
80. ^ Zaidan Hōjin Yano Tsuneta Kinenkai, 財団法人矢野恒太記念会 (2008). p.134 Tabel 13-6 dan catatan kaki. "Definisi keluarga petani komersial (hambai nōka) adalah keluarga dengan luas tanah lebih dari 3.000 m² atau pendapatan kotor lebih dari \500.000 per tahun; definisi keluarga petani pengusaha (shugyō nōka) adalah keluarga yang berpenghasilan utama dari pertanian, dan memiliki kepala keluarga berumur di bawah 65 tahun yang bekerja di lahan pertanian lebih dari 60 hari per tahun."
81. ^ Zaidan Hōjin Yano Tsuneta Kinenkai 財団法人矢野恒太記念会 (2008) p.136 Tabel 13-8. Report of Survey on Movement of Agriculture Structure.
82. ^ Pada tahun 1990, keluarga petani komersial yang memiliki kepala keluarga berusia di atas 65 tahun mencapai 19,5%. Angka ini bertambah menjadi 32,4% pada tahun 2007. Main Indicators Relating to Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (農林水 産業関連主要指標（１）土地と人口　Land and population). Kementerian Pertanian, Kehutanan, dan Perikanan Jepang (MAFF). Diakses pada 9 Maret 2009
83. ^ a b (2009). 人口推計月報. Biro Statistik Jepang. Diakses pada 8 Agustus 2009
84. ^ Japan-born Koreans live in limbo. The New York Times. 2 April 2005.
85. ^ An Enclave of Brazilians Is Testing Insular Japan. The New York Times. 1 November 2008.
86. ^ 'Home' is where the heartbreak is for Japanese-Peruvians. Asia Times. 16 Oktober 1999.
87. ^ Registered Foreigners in Japan by Nationality. Stat.go.jp.
88. ^ 国籍Ｑ＆Ａ. 民事局. Diakses pada 8 Agustus 2009
89. ^ Fogarty, Philippa, "Recognition at last for Japan's Ainu", BBC News, BBC, 2008-06-06. Diakses pada 7 Juni 2008.
90. ^ The Invisible Race. Time. 8 Januari 1973.
91. ^ The World Factbook: Rank order—Life expectancy at birth. CIA. Diakses pada 28 Desember 2006
92. ^ a b Statistical Handbook of Japan: Chapter 2—Population. Japan Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications. Diakses pada 28 Desember 2006
93. ^ a b Ogawa, Naohiro."Demographic Trends and Their Implications for Japan's Future" The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. Transkrip wawancara pada 7 Maret 1997. Diakses pada 14 Mei 2006.
94. ^ Hidenori Sakanaka. Japan Immigration Policy Institute: Director's message. Japan Immigration Policy Institute. Diakses pada 5 Januari 2007
95. ^ French, Howard."Insular Japan Needs, but Resists, Immigration". "The New York Times" (2003-07-24). Diakses pada 2007-02-21.
96. ^ Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. International Religious Freedom Report 2006. U.S. Department of State. Diakses pada 4 Desember 2007
97. ^ a b Kisala, Robert (2005). Robert Wargo. ed. The Logic Of Nothingness: A Study of Nishida Kitarō. University of Hawaii Press. hlm. 3–4. ISBN 0824822846.
98. ^ [http://www.bunka.go.jp/english/pdf/chapter_10.pdf Religious Juridical Persons and Administration of Religious Affairs, Agency for Cultural Affairs. Diakses pada 25 Agustus 2008]
99. ^ Shinsen-kokugojiten (新選国語辞典), Kyōsuke Kindaichi, Shogakukan, 2001, ISBN 4-09-501407-5
100. ^ 言語学大辞典セレクション：日本列島の言語 (Selection from the Encyclopædia of Linguistics: The Languages of the Japanese Archipelago). “琉球列島の言語” (The Languages of the Ryukyu Islands). 三省堂 1997
101. ^ 15 families keep ancient language alive in Japan. UN. Diakses pada 27 Maret 2007 Diarsipkan dari http://www.un.org/works/culture/japan_story.htmlpada 2008-01-06
102. ^ Lucien Ellington. Japan Digest: Japanese Education. Indiana University. Diakses pada 27 April 2006 Diarsipkan dari http://www.indiana.edu/~japan/digest5.htmlpada 2006-04-27
103. ^ Lucien Ellington. Beyond the Rhetoric: Essential Questions About Japanese Education. Foreign Policy Research Institute. Diakses pada 1 April 2007
104. ^ CIA World Factbook: Literacy
105. ^ School Education. (PDF) MEXT. Diakses pada 10 Maret 2007
106. ^ Kate Rossmanith. Rethinking Japanese education. The University of Sydney. Diakses pada 1 April 2007
107. ^ The World University Rankings.
108. ^ OECD’s PISA survey shows some countries making significant gains in learning outcomes, OECD, 04/12/2007. Range of rank on the PISA 2006 science scale

[sunting] Bacaan selanjutnya

* Conrad Totman, 2000. ‘A History of Modern Japan. Blackwell Publishers.’
* C.H. Kwan. 2001. ‘Yen Bloc: Toward Economic Integration in Asia.’ Brookings Institution Press.
* Bernson, Mary Hammond and Elaine Magnusson, eds. Modern Japan: An Idea Book for K-12 Teachers. Multicultural Education Resource Serial. Olympia, WA: Office of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1984. ED 252 486.
* Cogan, John J. and Donald O. Schneider, eds. Perspectives on Japan: A Guide for Teachers. Washington, DC: National Council for the Social Studies, 1983. ED 236 090.
* East Meets West: Mutual Images. Stanford, CA: California Center for Research in International Studies, l980. ED 196 765.
* Kaderabeck, Leslie. The Japanese Automobile Worker: A Microcosm of Japan’s Success. 1985. ED 263 041.
* Murphy, Carole. A Step by Step Guide for Planning a Japanese Cultural Festival. 1983. ED 238 748.
* Wojtan, Linda S. Free Resources for Teaching about Japan. Bloomington, IN: Midwest Program for Teaching about Japan, Indiana University, 1986. ED 270 3891.

[sunting] Lihat pula
Portal.svg Portal Jepang

* Hubungan luar negeri Jepang
* Kalender Jepang
* Militer Jepang
* Transportasi di Jepang
* Daftar masakan Jepang
* Daftar kata serapan dari bahasa Jepang dalam bahasa Indonesia
* Daftar wilayah metropolitan di Jepang menurut populasi

[sunting] Pranala luar
Search Wikimedia Commons Wikimedia Commons memiliki galeri mengenai:
Jepang

* (en) Kantei.go.jp – Situs web resmi kantor perdana menteri dan kabinet
* (en) Sangi-in.go.jp – Situs web resmi Badan Penasehat
* (en) Shugi-in.go.jp – Situs resmi Dewan Perwakilan
* (en) Courts.go.jp – Situs web resmi Mahkamah Agung Jepang
* (en) Kunaicho.go.jp – Situs web resmi keluarga Kekaisaran
* (id) Informasi mengenai Jepang di situs web resmi Kedutaan Besar Jepang di Indonesia

Wikitravel Lihat panduan wisata Jepang di Wikitravel

* (en) CIA World Factbook – Japan
* (en) Jepang – Nihon
* (id) Situs web informasi mengenai Jepang dalam bahasa Indonesia

[tampilkan]
l • b • s
Negara di Asia Timur
Republik Rakyat Cina • Jepang • Mongolia • Korea Selatan • Korea Utara • Republik Cina (Taiwan)
Daerah Administratif Khusus: Hong Kong • Makau
[tampilkan]
l • b • s
Negara di Asia
Negara berdaulat

Afganistan · Arab Saudi · Armenia1 · Azerbaijan1 · Bahrain · Bangladesh · Bhutan · Brunei · Republik Rakyat Cina · Filipina · Georgia1 · India · Indonesia · Irak · Iran · Israel · Jepang · Kamboja · Kazakhstan3 · Kirgizstan · Korea Selatan · Korea Utara · Kuwait · Laos · Lebanon · Maladewa · Malaysia · Mesir3 · Mongolia · Myanmar · Nepal · Oman · Pakistan · Qatar · Rusia3 · Singapura · Siprus1 · Sri Lanka · Suriah · Tajikistan · Republik Cina (Taiwan) · Thailand · Timor Leste2 · Turki3 · Turkmenistan · Uni Emirat Arab · Uzbekistan · Vietnam · Yaman · Yordania
Dependensi,
otonom,
wilayah lain

Abkhazia1 · Aceh · Ajaria1 · Akrotiri dan Dhekelia · Altai · Teritorial Britania di Samudra Hindia · Buryatia · Kepulauan Cocos (Keeling) · Guangxi · Hong Kong · Jakarta · Khakassia · Kurdistan Irak · Makau · Mongolia Dalam · Nagorno-Karabakh · Nakhichevan · Pulau Natal · Ningxia · Ossetia Selatan1 · Palestina (Jalur Gaza · Tepi Barat) · Papua bagian barat (Papua · Papua Barat) · Siprus Utara · Sakha · Tibet · Tuva · Xinjiang · Yogyakarta
Cetak miring menandakan negara yang tidak diakui. 1 Terkadang dimasukkan ke Eropa, tergantung definisi perbatasan Eurasia. 2 Terkadang dimasukkan ke Oseania. 3 Negara trans-benua.
[tampilkan]
l • b • s
Anggota Dewan Keamanan Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa

Untuk negara bernama Britania Raya yang juga sering disebut Inggris, lihat Britania Raya.

England
Flag of England.svg

EnglishcoatofarmsGFDL.png
(Bendera Inggris) (Lambang Inggris)
Motto: Dieu et mon droit (Bahasa Perancis: Tuhan dan Hakku)
Map of England within the United Kingdom.png
Bahasa resmi Tidak ada, bahasa Inggris secara de facto
Ibu kota London
Wilayah
– Total
130.395km²
Penduduk ;- Total (2006) ;- Kepadatan 58.716.581;
Dipersatukan Abad ke-9 oleh
Egbert dari Wessex
Zona waktu UTC+0
Lagu kebangsaan God Save the Queen

Inggris adalah negara bagian terbesar dan terpadat penduduknya dari negara-negara bagian yang membentuk Persatuan Kerajaan Britania Raya dan Irlandia Utara (United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland). Negara-negara lainnya adalah Skotlandia, Wales dan Irlandia Utara. Seringkali nama Inggris dipakai untuk menyebut keseluruhan negara ini.

Inggris yang wilayahnya meliputi 2/3 pulau Britania, berbatasan dengan Skotlandia di sebelah utara dan dengan Wales di sebelah barat.

Berbeda dengan Skotlandia, Wales dan Irlandia Utara, Inggris tidak memiliki pemerintahan dan parlemen lokal (setingkat dengan DPRD) sendiri.
Daftar isi
[sembunyikan]

* 1 Sejarah
* 2 Politik
* 3 Daerah
o 3.1 Region (wilayah) Inggris
o 3.2 Sungai besar
o 3.3 Kota besar
* 4 Geografi
* 5 Ekonomi
* 6 Lihat pula
* 7 Pranala luar

[sunting] Sejarah
!Artikel utama untuk bagian ini adalah: Sejarah Inggris
[sunting] Politik

Negara politik adalah wilayah berdaulat dengan satu kerajaan. Seluruh permukaan Bumi (tidak termasuk Antartika dengan wilayah perairan pantai dikata dibagikan antara negara geografi. Kini terdapat 192 negara yang diiktiraf Pertubuhan Bangsa-Bangsa Bersatu yaitu 191 negara dan Negara Vatikan.

Selain ini, terdapat wilayah-wilayah tidak berdaulat lain yang mahu diiktiraf sebagai negara dalam maksud di atas. Sesetengah daripada negara ini mempunyai kawalan de facto terhadap sesuatu kawasan dan populasi mereka, seperti Abkazia, tetapi tidak dikira sebagai negara kearena tidak diiktiraf sebagai mempunyai kedaulatan. Pada sebelah yang lainnya pula, di sesetengah negara yang kewujudannya diiktiraf secara antarabangsa, tiada kerajaan pusat yang berkuasa atau terdapat keramaian kerajaan-kerajaan de facto. Kerajaan-kerajaan ini tidak dikatakan mempunyai negara sendiri, tetapi berdiri diatas wilayah negara berkenaan.
[sunting] Daerah
!Artikel utama untuk bagian ini adalah: Daerah di Inggris
[sunting] Region (wilayah) Inggris

* Greater London (London Raya)
* North East England
* North West England
* Yorkshire and the Humber
* West Midlands
* East Midlands
* East of England
* South West England
* South East England

[sunting] Sungai besar

* Thames
* Severn
* Trent
* Hyne
* umber
* TMersey
* Dee

[sunting] Kota besar

* London
* Birmingham
* Manchester
* Bristol
* Liverpool
* Leeds
* Newcastle upon Tyne
* Sheffield

BlankMap-EnglandRegions.png
East
London
South East
South West
East Midlands
West Midlands
Yorkshire and
the Humber
North East
North West
[sunting] Geografi
!Artikel utama untuk bagian ini adalah: Geografi Inggris

Inggris meliputi 2/3 pulau Britania Raya dan menerima batas darat di utara dengan Skotlandia dan barat dengan Wales. Sedangkan di selatan Inggris dipisahkan dengan Perancis oleh Selat Inggris. Letak astronomis : 50°LU – 61°LU dan 11°BB – 15°BB
[sunting] Ekonomi
!Artikel utama untuk bagian ini adalah: Ekonomi Inggris
[sunting] Lihat pula

* Transportasi di Inggris
* Pariwisata di Inggris
* Militer di Inggris
* Hubungan luar negeri Inggris
* Daftar negara di dunia
* Stonehenge

[sunting] Pranala luar
Search Wikimedia Commons Wikimedia Commons memiliki galeri mengenai:
Inggris

* (en) BBC Nations: Artikel mengenai Inggris dan tetangganya
* (en) Kampanye untuk Parlemen Inggris
* (en) Situs resmi pariwisata
* (en) The Monarchy Today: Informasi mengenai bendera Union Jack
* (en) Stones of England: Informasi mengenai tempat bersejarah di Inggris
* (en) England Information: Informasi Inggris
* (en) The British Isles: Informasi mengenai Inggris

Europe2.png Artikel bertopik Eropa ini adalah sebuah rintisan. Anda dapat membantu Wikipedia dengan mengembangkannya.
Diperoleh dari “http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inggris”
Kategori: Britania Raya | Inggris
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* Halaman ini terakhir diubah pada 07:53, 27 Juli 2010.
* Teks tersedia di bawah Lisensi Atribusi/Berbagi Serupa Creative Commons; ketentuan tambahan mungkin berlaku. Lih